UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, SAN DIEGO Cerro Trapiche and the Wari Frontier Experience in the Middle Moquegua Valley, Perú A dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree Doctor of Philosophy in Anthropology by Ulrike Matthies Green Committee in charge: Professor Paul S. Goldstein, Chair Professor Guillermo Algaze Professor Geoffrey Braswell Professor Christine Hunefeldt Professor Elizabeth Newsome 2015 Copyright © Ulrike Matthies Green, 2015 All rights reserved. The Dissertation of Ulrike Matthies Green is approved, and it is acceptable in quality and form of publication on microfilm and electronically: ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ Chair University of California, San Diego 2015 iii TABLE OF CONTENTS SIGNATURE PAGE ......................................................................................................... iii TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................... iv LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................. xi LIST OF FIGURES ......................................................................................................... xiii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .............................................................................................. xv CURRICULUM VITAE ................................................................................................. xxii ABSTRACT OF THE DISSERTATION .................................................................... xxviii CHAPTER 1: MEETING AT THE EDGE OF EMPIRE: CHANGING INTERPRETATIONS OF COLONIAL ENCOUNTERS ............................................ 1 Introduction: ........................................................................................................................ 1 1.1. CORE-PERIPHERY MODELS .................................................................................. 2 1.1.1. Theoretical Underpinnings .................................................................................... 3 1.1.2. Application in Archaeology .................................................................................. 5 1.1.3. Challenges of Core-Periphery Models .................................................................. 9 1.2. ACCULTURATION, ASSIMILATION, AND EMULATION: EXPLAINING MECHANISMS OF CULTURAL EXCHANGE ............................................................ 11 1.3. PERIPHERY OR FRONTIER; HINTERLAND, BORDERLAND OR COLONY? 15 1.3.1. History of Frontier Studies .................................................................................. 15 1.3.2. New Frontiers ...................................................................................................... 19 1.4. POSTCOLONIAL STUDIES AND REGIONAL INTERACTION MODELS: A NEW FOCUS ON THE PERIPHERY ............................................................................. 21 1.4.1. The Language of Post-Colonialism ..................................................................... 22 1.4.2. Identity and Agency in the Periphery .................................................................. 24 1.4.3. Postcolonial Frontier Studies in Archaeology ..................................................... 28 1.4.2. Social Science and Post-Colonial Theory - Defining Colonialism ..................... 30 1.4. CONCLUSION CHAPTER 1 ................................................................................... 35 iv CHAPTER 2: WARI COLONIALISM AND WARI PERIPHERIES ...................... 37 Introduction: ...................................................................................................................... 37 2.1. WARI: THE LONG DISCOVERY OF AN ANCIENT CIVILIZATION ................ 37 2.2. WHAT IS WARI STYLE? ........................................................................................ 41 2.2.1. Ceramics .............................................................................................................. 41 2.2.2. Architecture ......................................................................................................... 45 2.2.3. Settlement Patterns and Agricultural Landscapes ............................................... 50 2.3. ARCHAEOLOGICAL CORRELATES AND (WARI) STATE EXPANSION ....... 53 2.3.1. Archaeological Correlates for Core Centric Core-Periphery Models and Acculturation Studies .................................................................................................... 53 2.3.2. Archaeological Correlates in Postcolonial and Frontier Models ........................ 57 2.4. INTERPRETING WARI AND THE MIDDLE HORIZON ..................................... 60 2.4.1. Wari: an Expansive Middle Horizon Conquest State .......................................... 61 2.4.2. Huari: a Subsidiary Administrative Center Of Tiahuanaco ................................ 63 2.4.3. Wari Style as aReflection of Middle Horizon Regional Interaction ................... 64 2.4.4. Beyond Wari Walls ............................................................................................. 65 2.5. UNDERSTANDING WARI COLONIAL ENCOUNTERS FROM CULTURAL INTERACTION PERSPECTIVES .................................................................................. 66 2.5.1. Core-Periphery Approaches ................................................................................ 66 2.5.1.1. Indirect Control and Nuanced Core-Periphery Approaches ......................... 71 2.5.2. Acculturation Models .......................................................................................... 75 2.5.3. Interregional and Post-Colonial models .............................................................. 78 2.5.4. The Wari Periphery as a Frontier Zone ............................................................... 80 2.6. THE WARI –TIWANAKU FRONTIER IN MOQUEGUA ..................................... 82 2.6.1. Cerro Baúl: a Classic Imperial Colony ............................................................... 83 2.7. CONCLUSION CHAPTER 2 ................................................................................... 86 CHAPTER 3: THE MOQUEGUA VALLEY, A MIDDLE HORIZON FRONTIER ZONE ............................................................................................................................... 89 Introduction: ...................................................................................................................... 89 v 3.1. THE MOQUEGUA VALLEY: GEOGRAPHY AND ENVIRONMENT ................ 90 3.2. MOQUEGUA’S FIRST AGRARIAN SETTLEMENTS AND THE HUARACANE TRADITION ..................................................................................................................... 93 3.2.1. Settlement Patterns .............................................................................................. 94 3.2.2. Ceramic Repertoire ............................................................................................. 95 3.2.3. Agricultural and Dietary Practices ...................................................................... 97 3.2.4. Society and Mortuary Tradition .......................................................................... 99 3.2.5. Dating the Huaracane ........................................................................................ 101 3.3. THE MIDDLE HORIZON: MOQUEGUA BECOMES A LIVELY FRONTIER ZONE .............................................................................................................................. 103 3.3.1. Tiwanaku Colonies ............................................................................................ 104 3.3.1.1. Omo Style and Settlements......................................................................... 105 3.3.1.2. Chen Chen Style and Settlements ............................................................... 107 3.3.1.3. Settling on the Fringe: Tiwanaku’s Perfect Niche .................................... 109 3.3.1.4. The Tiwanaku Frontier Experience ........................................................... 111 3.3.2. Wari Colonies in the Seventh and Eight Centuries ........................................... 114 3.3.2.1. Cerro Baúl: Wari Settlements in the Upper Valley .................................... 117 3.3.2.2.Cerro Trapiche: a Wari Outpost in the Middle Valley ................................ 120 3.3.2.3. The Wari Frontier in Moquegua ................................................................. 121 3.4. CONCLUSION CHAPTER 3 ................................................................................. 122 CHAPTER 4: CERRO TRAPICHE – A LONG-TERM INFLUENCE IN THE MIDDLE MOQUEGUA VALLEY ............................................................................. 125 Introduction: .................................................................................................................... 125 4.1. GEOGRAPHIC LOCATION .................................................................................. 126 4.2. RESEARCH HISTORY .......................................................................................... 128 4.2.1. Discovery and Early Research 1984-1989 .......................................................