Nationaal Rapporteur Mensenhandel Trafficking in Human Beings Case law on trafficking in human beings 2009-2012 An analysis Colophon Reference: National Rapporteur on Trafficking in Human Beings (2012). Trafficking in Human Beings. Case law on trafficking in human beings 2009-2012. An analysis. The Hague: BNRM Office of the National Rapporteur on Trafficking in Human Beings P. O. Box 20301 2500 EH The Hague +31 (0)70 370 4514 www.nationaalrapporteur.nl / www.dutchrapporteur.nl Graphic and digital realization: Pieter Kers, Realizapp © bnrm 2012 Contents List of tables and figures 7 Acronyms 9 Foreword 11 1 Introduction 13 2 Article 273f of the Dutch Criminal Code 19 2.1 Legislative history 19 2.2 International principles 22 2.3 The definitions of offences in Article 273f DCC 25 2.3.1 Subsection 1: acts, coercion and (intention of ) exploiting 25 2.3.2 Subsection 3: in another country 29 2.3.3 Subsection 4: use of a situation of exploitation 29 2.3.4 Subsection 6, 7, 8 and 9: profiting 30 2.3.5 Subsection 2, 5 and 8: underage victims 31 3 Some figures (2010) 33 4 Prosecution and trial 39 4.1 Introduction 39 4.2 The indictment 40 4.2.1 Article 261 of the Code of Criminal Procedure and nullity of indictment on substantive grounds 41 4.2.2 Mutual relationship between subsections 44 4.2.3 Number of victims 44 4.3 Jurisdiction 45 4.3.1 Basic principles 46 4.3.2 Extraterritorial jurisdiction 48 4.4 Coercion and free will 50 4.4.1 Children 51 4.4.2 Violence and manipulation 54 4.4.3 Data on means of coercion used 56 4.4.4 Means of coercion in relation to each other 58 4.4.5 Deception, abuse of a vulnerable position and misuse of a position of authority arising from the actual state of affairs 59 4 Case law on traffiCking in human beings 4.4.6 Initiative and awareness 63 4.4.7 Consent and free will 65 4.4.8 The influence of Dutch prostitution policy on the case law on sexual exploitation 65 4.5 Subsection 3 67 4.5.1 Recruitment, taking with and inducing 70 4.5.2 The Netherlands and other countries 72 4.5.3 Means of coercion are not an element of the offence 73 4.5.4 Sentences 75 4.6 Subsection 4 76 4.6.1 The offence 76 4.6.2 Relationship between subsection 4 and subsection 1 78 4.6.3 The acts in subsection 4 79 4.6.4 Intention of exploiting is not an element of the offence in subsection 4 81 4.7 Attempt 86 4.7.1 Attempt or completed offence? 87 4.7.2 Grooming 89 5 Suspects and perpetrators 91 5.1 Suspects and perpetrators by gender, age group and region of birth 91 5.2 Preventive custody 95 6 Sentencing 97 6.1 Instructions and orientation points 97 6.2 Figures 102 6.2.1 Sanctions demanded by the PPS 102 6.2.2 Sentences and measures imposed 106 6.2.3 Differences in sentences demanded and imposed 111 6.3 Determination of sentences 113 6.3.1 Aggravating circumstances 114 6.3.1.1 By two or more persons acting in concert 114 6.3.1.2 Victims younger than 16 years 115 6.3.1.3 Serious physical injury 116 6.3.2 Other factors affecting sentencing 117 6.3.3 Factors that are wrongly taken into account 120 6.4 Bill to implement the EU Directive on Human Trafficking 122 6.4.1 Particularly vulnerable victims 123 6.4.2 Human trafficking preceded, accompanied or followed by violence 123 7 Victims 125 7.1 Number of unique victims identified by the PPS 125 7.2 Number of victims declared proven 126 7.3 Victims by gender and age 127 7.4 Victims recruited abroad by region of origin and region of origin of underage victims 129 7.5 Victims in the criminal process and the non-punishment principle 131 5 Contents 8 Compensation 135 8.1 Modalities of compensation 135 8.2 Compensation and other forms of exploitation 137 8.2.1 Nature and amount of claims filed 137 8.2.2 Claims wholly or partially awarded 139 8.2.3 Claims not awarded 140 8.3 Compensation and sexual exploitation 140 8.3.1 Number, nature and amount of claims filed 140 8.3.2 Number, nature and amount of partially awarded claims 143 8.4 The compensation order 146 8.4.1 Compensation orders imposed between 2007 and 2011 147 8.4.2 Compensation orders imposed ex officio 150 8.5 Reasoning 151 8.5.1 Different methods of calculating material loss 152 8.5.2 Damage for emotional injury in cases of sexual exploitation 154 8.5.3 The criterion ‘disproportionate burden on the criminal proceedings’ 155 8.6 Violent Offences Compensation Fund 156 8.6.1 Number of applications submitted and awarded 158 8.6.2 Nature and amount of financial compensation 160 8.6.3 New policy document 163 8.6.4 Victims and the Violent Offences Compensation Fund 164 8.7 Compensation in relation to the deprivation of illegally obtained profits 164 9 Conclusions and recommendations 167 9.1 Key message 167 9.2 Current status of case law on human trafficking 168 9.2.1 Some figures (2010) 168 9.2.2 Pitfalls 170 9.2.3 Sentencing 173 9.2.4 Compensation 174 9.3 Recommendations 175 Bibliography 179 List of judgments 183 Appendices 189 A1 Article 273f DCC 191 A2 Research methodology 193 A3 Additional tables 199 1 Tables based on the quantitative study of human trafficking judgments in 2010 199 2 Tables based on information from the Central Fine Collection Agency 211 3 Tables based on information from the Violent Offences Compensation Fund 213 List of tables and figures Table 1 Experience of judges (2010) 15 Table 2 Number of convictions and acquittals for human trafficking (2010) 37 Table 3 Means of coercion used (2010, sexual exploitation) 57 Table 4 Means of coercion used (2010, other forms of exploitation) 58 Table 5 Suspects and perpetrators by gender (2010) 91 Table 6 Suspects and perpetrators by age group (2010) 92 Table 7 Suspects and perpetrators by region of birth (2010) 93 Table 8 Suspects and perpetrators in custody at the time of the trial (2010) 96 Table 9 Nature of the sentences and measures demanded (2010) 102 Table 10 Length of the unconditional part of the prison sentences demanded, by category (2010) 104 Table 11 Average length of the unconditional part of the prison sentences demanded (2010) 105 Table 12 Nature of the sentences and measures imposed (2010) 106 Table 13 Length of the unconditional part of the prison sentences imposed, by category (2010) 108 Table 14 Average length of the unconditional part of the prison sentences imposed (2010) 110 Table 15 Average duration of proven human trafficking offence with the longest duration per conviction, in days (2010) 118 Table 16 Number of suspects per victim (2010) 126 Table 17 Persons found to have been victims (2010) 127 Table 18 Victims by gender (2010) 127 Table 19 Victims by age group (2010) 128 Table 20 Victims by region of origin (2010) 130 Table 21 Nature of aggrieved party claims submitted relating exclusively to human trafficking (2010, other forms of exploitation) 138 Table 22 Amount of known aggrieved party claims relating exclusively to human trafficking (2010, other forms of exploitation) 138 Table 23 Number of aggrieved party claims awarded relating exclusively to human trafficking (2010, other forms of exploitation) 138 Table 24 Nature of aggrieved party claims submitted relating exclusively to human trafficking (2010, sexual exploitation) 141 Table 25 Amount of aggrieved party claims filed relating exclusively to human trafficking (2010, sexual exploitation) 142 Table 26 Number of aggrieved party claims awarded relating exclusively to human trafficking (2010, sexual exploitation) 143 8 Case law on traffiCking in human beings Table 27 Nature of aggrieved party claims awarded relating exclusively to human trafficking (2010, sexual exploitation) 144 Table 28 Amount of aggrieved party claims awarded that relating exclusively to human trafficking (2010, sexual exploitation) 145 Figure 1 Number of compensation orders imposed and number of victims involved (2007-2011) 147 Figure 2 Compensation orders by amount (2007-2011) 148 Figure 3 Compensation orders by disposal (total for 2007-2011) 149 Figure 4 Compensation orders by amount paid (total for 2007-2011) 150 Figure 5 Number of applications for financial compensation (2007-2011) 159 Figure 6 Decisions on applications for financial compensation (2007-2011) 160 Figure 7 Application of scales for emotional injury damage (2009-2011) 161 Figure 8 Financial compensation for material damage (2009-2011) 162 Table A1.1 Study of case law versus PPS data (2010) 199 Table A1.2 Human trafficking judgments rendered by each district court (2010) 200 Table A1.3 Types of human trafficking judgments (2010) 202 Table A1.4 Preliminary issues (2010) 203 Table A1.5 Subsections under which charges were brought and declared proven (2010) 204 Table A1.6 Subsections under which charges were declared proven in relation to subsections under which charges were brought (2010) 205 Table A1.7 Means of coercion as a necessary element of the offence in cases of sexual exploitation (2010) 206 Table A1.8 Offences other than human trafficking that were charged and declared proven (2010) 207 Table A1.9 Sectors outside the sex industry in which exploitation occurred (2010) 209 Table A1.10 (Intention of ) exploiting in relation to other forms of exploitation (2010) 210 Table A2.1 Number of compensation measures imposed (2007-2011) 211 Table A2.2 Compensation orders, by amount imposed (2007-2011) 211 Table A2.3 Compensation orders, by disposition (2007-2011) 212 Table A2.4 Compensation orders, by amount paid (2007-2011) 212 Table A3.1 Number of applications for financial compensation (2007-2011) 213 Table A3.2 Referrals by agencies to the Violent Offences Compensation Fund (2009-2011) 213 Table A3.3 Decisions on applications for financial compensation (2007-2011) 214 Table A3.4 Scales applied for emotional injury (2009-2011) 214 Table A3.5 Financial compensation for material loss (2009-2011) 215 Table A3.6 Financial compensation for material loss, divided into quartiles (2009-2011) 215 Acronyms A-G Advocate-General Art.