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ZEEB ROAD, ANN ARBOR, MI 48106 18 BEDFORD ROW, LONDON WC1R 4EJ, ENGLAND 8012262 LIM, JooTICK CHARACTERISTICS OF THE WINTER MONSOON OVER THE MALAYSIAN REGION University ofHawaii PH.D. 1979 University Microfilms International 300 N. ZeebRoad, AnnArbor, MI 48106 18Bedford Row, London WCIR4EJ,England CHARACTERISTICS OF THE WINTER MONSOON OVER THE MALAYSIAN REGION A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE DIVISION OF THE UNIVERSITY OF HAWAII IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN METEOROLOGY DECEMBER 1979 By JOO TICK LIM Dissertation Committee Colin S. Ramage, Chairman Marie Sanderson Wan-Cheng Chiu James C. Sadler Thomas A. Schroeder iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author is indebted to Professor Colin S. Ramage for his continuous encouragement and guidance through0ut the entire study. He would like to thank Professors Wan-Cheng Chiu, James C. Sadler and Thomas A. Schroeder for their constructive comments and helpful suggestions. The World Meteorological Organization provided the long~term fellowship to enable him to undertake graduate study at the University of Hawaii. The Director-General of the Malaysian Meteorological Service gave support and encouragement, and had arranged for speedy delivery of requested data. Finally, the study makes constant reference to the climatological works related to the Malaysian region by Professors S. Nieuwolt, C. S. Ramage and J. C. Sadler and Dr. W. L. Dale. iv ABSTRACT Two periods, a strong and weak monsoon periods, are chosen from the winter monsoon of 1974/75 for the study of some characteristics of the monsoon over the Malaysian region. In the strong monsoon period, it is found that a time lag of about three days existed between the cold surge arrival at Hong Kong and the occurrence of heavy rainfall over the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia. Interaction between the quasi-stationary near-equatorial trough and monsoon surge caused the heavy rainfall over Malaysia. Mean maps of various radiative parameters for South- east Asia for the two periods are analyzed. Of interest is the albedo map for the surge period, which indicates the maximum albedo (convective activity) areas were confined largely to the Peninsular Malaysia-South Thailand-South Bay of Bengal region. Composite maps of surface wind speed, air temperature, dew-point and sea surface temperature (SST) over the South China Sea are prepared. It is found that a strong wind band was aligned along the general wind direction during the monsoon surge. The strong wind band formed the main surface branch of the Hadley cell while the intense convective activity region, which lay downwind of the strong wind band, became the main ascending branch. In general, the distribu- v tions of SST, air temperature and dewpoint during the strong monsoon period showed large gradients north of 15N. To south of 15N, they were relatively uniform. In the weak monsoon period, the distributions of these parameters, with the exception of SST, were influenced greatly by the presence of a tropical storm. Surface heat exchanges are computed for several locations over the South China Sea using the bulk aero- dynamic equations. It is noted that during the strong monsoon period, the intake of latent heat and sensible heat by the atmosphere decreased by more than half when the northeasterlies traversed from the northern South China Sea to the Peninsular Malaysia-South Thailand region, although wind speed remained as strong as in the north. A detailed study is made of the near-equatorial trough. It is found that the trough has a double-convergence structure with primary convergence located in the trough northern flank. The trough thermal structure resembles that of the typhoon and evidence points to CISK as the principal mechanism for its development and maintenance. Hourly surface wind observations along the Malaysian coasts are analyzed to determine the characteristics of the coastal winds and the extent of local influence. During the weak monsoon period, land/sea breeze circulations pre­ vailed everywhere, while during the strong monsoon period, vi the mesoscale circulations existed in most areas except northeastern Peninsular Malaysia. The coastal winds had three main diurnal variations which can be analyzed by a two-dimensional analytical model. Theoretical analyses indicate that the coastal wind characteristics are deter­ mined largely by the synoptic winds, Coriolis parameter, temperature difference between land and sea, and surface friction. During the monsoon surge, the mountain ranges and near-equatorial trough restricted the strong monsoon conditions to northeastern Peninsular Malaysia, where a rains regime dominated. Here s,rong winds and cloudy skies suppressed all local effects and rainfall occurred mostly during the night and early morning. Elsewhere, a showers regime prevailed. The observed diurnal rainfall variations were generally the result of interactions among the various local factors and synoptic winds. In the weak monsoon period, a showers regime prevailed throughout Peninsular and East Malaysia. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS • iii ABSTRACT . iv LIST OF TABLES xi LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xii 1.0 INTRODUCTION 1 2.0 WINTER MONSOON SURGES. 4 2.1 Introduction . 4 2.2 Relation between monsoon surges and weather over Malaysia 6 2.3 Monsoon disturbances 7 2.4 The surge of January 1-8, 1975 . 9 2.5 The surges of Decembec 1973 10 2.6 Additional remarks. 10 3.0 LARGE-SCALE FEATURES OVER SOUTHEAST ASIA 12 3.1 Mean earth-atmospheric radiation components . 12 3.1.1 Radiation data 12 3.1.2 Radiative heating during the strong monsoon period . 12 3.1.3 Radiative heating during the monsoC'n break . 14 3.2 Surface characteristics of the South China Sea ....•. 14 3.2.1 Data sources 14 3.2.2 Strong monsoon characteristics 15 3.2.3 Weak monsoon characteristics 17 viii TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued) 3.3 Heat exchange over the South China Sea. 18 3.3.1 Bulk aerodynamic equations 18 3.3.2 Results of heat transfer computation . 21 3.4 East Asian Hadley circulation 23 4.0 NEAR-EQUATORIAL TROUGH . 26 4.1 Climatology 26 4.1.1 Mean position of the gradient­ level trough 26 4.1.2 Rainfall distribution across the trough 27 4.2 Case study . 29 4.2.1 Thermodynamic structure of the trough during the strong monsoon period 29 4.2.2 Structure of the trough during the monsoon break . 34 4.2.3 Structure of the trough over East Malaysia . 34 4.2.4 Dynamic aspects. 35 4.3 Oceanic trough. 40 4.4 Comparison with earlier studies 42 4.5 Local changes in the intensity of the trough • 44 5.0 LAND/SEA BREEZES 46 5.1 Observations of coastal surface winds 46 5.1.1 Weak monsoon period. 46 5.1.2 Strong monsoon period. 47 ix TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued) 5.2 Theoretical discussion. 48 5.2.1 Brief review of theoretical studies .. 48 5.2.2 Choice of coordinate system 52 5.2.3 Temperature difference between land and sea 53 5.2.4 Coefficient of surface resistance of the coast 55 5.2.5 Prevailing wind at the coast 59 5.2.6 Application of the model to the equatorial region . 59 5.2.7 Rate of change of wind direction 65 5.2.8 Further comments on the model. 67 5.3 Effect of the near-equatorial trough. 68 5.4 Weather associated with land/sea breezes 70 6.0 MONSOON RAINFALL CHARACTERISTICS 72 6.1 Rainfall of Peninsular Malaysia 72 6.1.1 Diurnal rainfall variation during the strong monsoon period 73 6.1.2 Diurnal rainfall variation during the monsoon break 75 6.2 Rainfall of East Malaysia 76 6.2.1 Diurnal rainfall variation during the strong and weak monsoon periods . 78 7.0 SUMMARY. 80 x TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued) APPENDIX A. ANALYTICAL SOLUTIONS TO LAND/SEA BREEZE EQUATIONS ... 83 APPENDIX B.