Downloaded by [University of Defence] at 23:51 30 May 2016 Cyber Warfare This book is a multidisciplinary analysis of cyber warfare, featuring contribu- tions by leading experts from a mixture of academic and professional backgrounds. Cyber warfare, meaning interstate cyber aggression, is an increasingly important emerging phenomenon in international relations, with state- orchestrated (or apparently state- orchestrated) computer network attacks occur- ring in Estonia (2007), Georgia (2008) and Iran (2010). This method of waging warfare – given its potential to, for example, make planes fall from the sky or cause nuclear power plants to melt down – has the capacity to be as devastating as any conventional means of conducting armed conflict. Every state in the world now has a cyber- defence programme and over 120 states also have a cyber- attack programme. While the amount of literature on cyber warfare is growing within disciplines, our understanding of the subject has been limited by a lack of cross- disciplinary engagement. In response, this book, drawn from the fields of computer science, military strategy, international law, political science and military ethics, provides a critical overview of cyber warfare for those approaching the topic from what- ever angle. Chapters consider the emergence of the phenomena of cyber warfare in international affairs; what cyber- attacks are from a technological standpoint; the extent to which cyber- attacks can be attributed to state actors; the strategic value and danger posed by cyber conflict; the legal regulation of cyber- attacks, both as international uses of force and as part of an ongoing armed conflict, and the ethical implications of cyber warfare. Downloaded by [University of Defence] at 23:51 30 May 2016 This book will be of great interest to students of cyber warfare, cyber security, military ethics, international law, security studies and IR in general. James A. Green is Associate Professor of Public International Law at the Uni- versity of Reading. He is author of The International Court of Justice and self- defence in international law (2009), and co- editor of Conflict in the Caucasus: Implications for international order (with C.P.M. Waters, 2010) and Adjudicat- ing international human rights: Essays in honour of Sandy Ghandhi (with C.P.M. Waters, 2015). Routledge Studies in Conflict, Security and Technology Series Editors: Mark Lacy, Dan Prince, Sylvia Walby and Corinne May- Chalal Lancaster University The Routledge Studies in Conflict, Technology and Security series aims to publish challenging studies that map the terrain of technology and security from a range of disciplinary perspectives, offering critical perspectives on the issues that concern publics, business and policymakers in a time of rapid and disruptive technological change. Nonlinear Science and Warfare Chaos, complexity and the U.S. military in the information age Sean T. Lawson Terrorism Online Politics, law, technology Edited by Lee Jarvis, Stuart Macdonald and Thomas M. Chen Cyber Warfare Downloaded by [University of Defence] at 23:51 30 May 2016 A multidisciplinary analysis Edited by James A. Green Cyber Warfare A multidisciplinary analysis Edited by James A. Green Downloaded by [University of Defence] at 23:51 30 May 2016 First published 2015 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2015 selection and editorial matter James A. Green; individual chapters, the contributors The right of the editor to be identified as the author of the editorial matter, and of the authors for their individual chapters, has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging- in-Publication Data Cyber warfare : a multidisciplinary analysis / edited by James A. Green. pages cm. − (Routledge studies in conflict, security and technology) Includes bibliographical references and index. 1. Cyberspace operations (Military science) 2. Just war doctrine. I. Green, James A., 1981- editor of compilation. U163.C936 2015 355.4−dc23 2014043880 ISBN: 978-1-138-79307-1 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-315-76156-5 (ebk) Downloaded by [University of Defence] at 23:51 30 May 2016 Typeset in Times New Roman by Wearset Ltd, Boldon, Tyne and Wear For my Dad, David Green, whom I love dearly (even if I rarely tell him), on the occasion of his sixtieth birthday. I vividly remember him helping me with a school project on bears by us looking them up together on a Microsoft Encarta CD- ROM, using the family’s first, brand new home computer. We marvelled together – father and son – at how far technology had come; he said something about the future having ‘arrived’ . Downloaded by [University of Defence] at 23:51 30 May 2016 7KLVSDJHLQWHQWLRQDOO\OHIWEODQN Downloaded by [University of Defence] at 23:51 30 May 2016 Contents List of illustrations viii Notes on contributors ix Acknowledgements xii List of abbreviations xiii Introduction 1 JAMES A. GREEN 1 A short history of cyber warfare 7 RICHARD STIENNON 2 Understanding cyber- attacks 33 DUNCAN HODGES AND SADIE CREESE 3 The attribution of cyber warfare 61 NEIL C. ROWE 4 The strategic implications of cyber warfare 73 DANNY STEED 5 The regulation of cyber warfare under the jus ad bellum 96 Downloaded by [University of Defence] at 23:51 30 May 2016 JAMES A. GREEN 6 The regulation of cyber warfare under the jus in bello 125 HEATHER A. HARRISON DINNISS 7 The relevance of the Just War Tradition to cyber warfare 160 DAVID WHETHAM AND GEORGE R. LUCAS, JR Index 174 Illustrations Figures 2.1 A request for a website broken down into the four layers of the Internet Protocol suite (TCP/IP) 37 2.2 A simplified model of attack steps 39 3.1 An example network 66 5.1 The relationship between the concepts of armed attack, force and intervention 111 Tables 2.1 The targetability characteristic 45 2.2 The controllability characteristic 46 2.3 The persistence characteristic 47 2.4 The effect characteristic 49 Downloaded by [University of Defence] at 23:51 30 May 2016 2.5 The covertness characteristic 50 2.6 The mitigatable characteristic 51 Contributors Sadie Creese is Professor of Cybersecurity in the Department of Computer Science at the University of Oxford. She is Director of Oxford’s Cyber Security Centre, Director of the Global Centre for Cyber Security Capacity Building and co- Director of the Institute for the Future of Computing at the Oxford Martin School. Her research experience spans time in academia, industry and government. She is engaged in a broad portfolio of cyber security research spanning situational awareness, visual analytics, risk propa- gation and communication, threat modelling and detection, network defence, dependability and resilience, and formal analysis. She has numerous research collaborations with other disciplines and has been leading interdisciplinary research projects since 2003. Prior to joining Oxford in October 2011 she was Professor and Director of e- Security at the University of Warwick’s Inter- national Digital Laboratory. Professor Creese joined Warwick in 2007 from QinetiQ, where she most recently served as Director of Strategic Programmes for QinetiQ’s Trusted Information Management Division. Heather A. Harrison Dinniss is a Senior Lecturer at the International Law Centre of the Swedish National Defence College. She is the author of Cyber war and the laws of war (Cambridge University Press, 2012). Her research focuses on the impact of modern warfare on international humanitarian law; in particular on cyber warfare, advanced and autonomous weapons systems and the legal aspects of enhancement techniques on members of the armed forces. She has previously taught at the London School of Economics and Political Science (LSE), the School of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS) at the Uni- Downloaded by [University of Defence] at 23:51 30 May 2016 versity of London, and Victoria University of Wellington (NZ). She was awarded her PhD from the LSE in 2009, and is also a graduate of Victoria University of Wellington (NZ), with a Masters of Law (Hons), an LLB, and a BA in Psychology. Heather is also a barrister and solicitor of New Zealand. James A. Green is Associate Professor of Public International Law at the Uni- versity of Reading, where he has been a member of staff since 2006. Previ- ously, he studied for his doctorate at the University of Nottingham and, in 2005, was a visiting research scholar at the University of Michigan. He is the author of The International Court of Justice and Self-defence in International x Contributors Law (Hart Publishing, 2009), which was the winner of the Francis Lieber Prize, awarded by the American Society of International Law’s Lieber Society, as well as the co- editor of Conflict in the Caucasus: Implications for international order (with C.P.M. Waters, Palgrave, 2010). He has published numerous articles on international law in leading journals. Dr Green is co- editor-in-chief of the Journal on the Use of Force and International Law and is a member of the International Law Association Committee on the Use of Force. His next monograph, The Persistent Objector Rule in International Law will be published in 2015 by Oxford University Press.