Abbreviations ARF Annales Regni Francorum (see Bibliography) ARF Rev refers to the revised version of c. 814 CC Corpus Christianorum, series latina CFHB Corpus Fontium Historiae Byzantinae CHFM Les Classiques de l'Histoire de France au MlQ'en Age CLA Codices Latini Antiquiores, ed. E. A. Lowe, XI vols plus a Supplement (Oxford, 1934-71) CSEL Corpus Scriptorum Ecclesiasticorum Latinorum CSHB Corpus Scriptorum Historiae Byzantinae FEHL Coleccion Fuentes y Estudios de Historia Leonesa Fontes Fontes ad Historiam Regni FrancorumAevi Karolini IIIustrandam, ed. R. Rau (3 vols, Dannstadt, 1955-60) MGH Monumenta Germaniae Historica, subdivided by series: AA Audores Antiquissimi Cap;t Cap;tularia Epp Epistulae LL Leges SS Scnptores SRG Scriptores Rerum Germanicarum SRM Scriptores Rerum Meruvingicarum MloG Miueilungen des Instituts for osterreichische Geschichtsforschung PG Patrologia Graeca, ed. J. P. Migne PL Patrologia Latina, ed. J. P. Migne PLRE Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire, ed. J. R. Martindale et al. 2 vols: vol. I: AD 260-395 (Cambridge, 1971) vol. II: AD 395-527 (Cambridge, 1980) RIC Roman Imperial Coinage SC Sources Chritiennes SHF Societe de l'Histoire de France SLH Scriptores Latini Hiberniae 356 Notes 1 PROBLEM-SOLVING EMPERORS 1. Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae, XXIII. v. 17; F. Millar, The Roman Empire and its Neighbours (London and New York, 1967), pp. 238-48. 2. A. A. Barrett, Caligula: the Corruption ofPower (London, 1990), pp. xix, 1- 41,172-80. 3. Herodian, Basileas Historias, VI. viii.i and VII. i.l-2. 4. Scriptores Historiae Augustae: Maximini Duo (ascribed to Julius Capitol­ inus), I. 5-7, and 11.5; see also the discussion in R. Syme, 'The Emperor Maximinus', in his Emperors and Biography (Oxford, 1971), pp. 179-93. For the imperial portraiture of Maximin see S. Wood, Roman Portrait Sculpture, 2 J7-260 A.D. (Leiden, 1986), pp. 33-5, 66-8, 126-7. 5. Herodian, Basileas Historias, VIII. v. 8-9 and vi. 2. 6. F. Millar, The Emperor in the Roman World (London, 1977), pp. 122-31. 7. Sextus Aurelius Victor, Liber de Caesaribus, 28; anon. Epitome de Caesar­ ibus, 28; Zosimus, Historias Neas, I. 18-23. 8. Sextus Aurelius Victor 29; Epitome 29; Zosimus I. 21-5. See also Wood, Roman Portrait Sculpture, pp.42-5, 77-9. 9. Sextus Aurelius Victor 30-2; Epitome 30-2; Zosimus, I. 24-30, 36; Scriptores HistoriaeAugustae: Valeriani Duo ('Trebellius Pollio'). See Wood, Roman Portrait Sculpture, pp. 43-8, 109-11. 10. The capture of Valerian is graphically represented both on the Sassanian cameo of Shapur I in the Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris, and in the monumental rock carving of Naqsh-i-Rustam; see R. Ghirshman, Iran: Parthians and Sassanians (London, 1962), plates 195-7. 11. On the Gallic Empire see E. M. Wightman, GalHa Belgica (London, 1985), pp. 191-201. 12. RIC, vol. 5(1), ed. H. Mattingly and E. A. Sydenham, pp. 248-62. 13. L. de Blois, The Polig ofthe Emperor Gallienus (Leiden, 1976), pp. 29-30. 14. I am persuaded by the arguments of R. Syme, 'The Emperor Claudius Tacitus', in his Emperors and Biography (Oxford, 1971), pp. 237-47 that Tacitus belongs to this military group, and that the presentation ofhim in the SHA as an amiable nincompoop of a senator is a deliberate distortion. 15. Sextus Aurelius Victor 38.3; Epitome 38.3. 16. Epitome 34.5 (Quintillus); Sextus Aurelius Victor 36; Zosimus I. 63-4 (Florian). 17. Sextus Aurelius Victor 37.4; Zosimus I. 71. Scriptores Historiae Augustae: Probus, xx (by 'Flavius Vopiscus of Syracuse') is completely unreliable. 18. Sextus Aurelius Victor 37.3. 19. Sextus Aurelius Victor 39.1-16; Zosimus I. 73. 20. Sextus Aurelius Victor 39. 17-19; Eutropius, Breviarium, xxii; 357 358 Notes to pp. 8-17 S. Williams, Dioeletian and the Roman ReCQIJtry (London, 1985), pp. 43-8. 21. Williams, Diodetian, pp. 61-70; W. Seston, Diodetien et Iu. Tetrarchie, vol. 1 (paris, 1946), pp. 231-57. T. D. Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius (Cam­ bridge, Mass., 1981), pp. 8-10. 22. P. Salway, Roman Britain (Oxford, 1981), pp. 288-314. 23. Seston, Diodetien, pp. 137-54. 24. See RIC, vol. VI, ed. C. H. V. Sutherland and R. A. G. Carson, for the coins of the tetrarchy. 25. R. Bianchi Bandinelli, Rome: the Late Empire (London, 1971), plate 256; H. P. L'Orange, Art Forms and Civic Lift in the Later Roman Empire (princeton, 1965), pp. 37-68. 26. XII Panegyrici Latini, XI. xi. 4, ed. R. Mynors (Oxford, 1964), p. 265. 27. Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, pp. 7-8. 28. A. H. M. Jones, The Later Roman Empire, 284-602 (3 vols, Oxford, 1964), vol. I, pp.42-52. 29. Ibid., pp. 52-60; E. N. Luttwak, The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire (Baltimore and London, 1976), pp. 127-90. 30. T. Frank, Economic Survey of Ancient Rome (Baltimore, 1940), vol. 5, pp.310-421. 31. Jones, Later Roman Empire, vol. 1, pp. 68-70. 32. Suetonius, Vita Neronis, xvi. 33. Eusebius of Caesarea, Ecclesiastical History, VI. xxxix. I-VI. xlv. 5. 34. Cyprian, bishop of Carthage, Epistolu.e, lxxx. 35. Translated by H. Bettensen, Documents ofthe Christian Church (2nd edn, Oxford, 1963), III g, pp. 13-14. 36. For some arguments about the causes of the persecutions see G. E. M. de Ste Croix, 'Why were the Early Christians Persecuted?', together with a reply by A. N. Sherwin-White and de Ste Croix's riposte, all conveniently to be found in M.l. Finley (ed.), Studies in Ancient Society (London, 1974), pp.21O-62. 37. RIC, vol. 4 (3), ed. H. Mattingly, E. A. Sydenham and C. H. V. Suther­ land, pp. 117-18 and 130-3; these coins were all struck in Milan. 38. On Christians in the Roman army see A. D. Nock, 'The Roman Army and the Roman Religious Year', Harvard Theological Review, 45 (1952), 186- 252, especially section III. iv. 39. Eusebius of Caesarea, Ecclesiastical History, VI, xli. I-xlii. 4. 40. Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History, VII. x. 3-9. 41. Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum, X. 6, XI. 1-4; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, pp. 15-27. 42. Barnes, ibid., pp. 149-62. 2 THE AGE OF CONSTANTINE 1. Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum, 19; Eutropius, Breviarium, IX. xxvi­ xxviii. 2. Eutropius X. i-no Zosimus, Historias Neas, II. viii. 3. Eutropius X. n. 2. T. D. Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius (Cambridge, 1981), pp. 28-9. 4. Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum, 29. Notes to pp. 17-23 359 5. Barnes, Constantine and Eusmus, pp. 32-3, and Dn. 36 and 38, indicates that in practice neither Constantine nor Maximin used the tide of Filius Augusti within their own territories. 6. Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum, 35. 7. Zosimus II. xv-xvi; Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum, 44. 8. A. H. M. Jones, Constantine and the Conversion ofEurope (London, 1949), pp. 94-7 for a discussion of the evidence and a possible rationalising explanation. 9. Older arguments are dealt with in N. H. Baynes, Constantine the Great and the Christian Church (2nd edn with preface by H. Chadwick, Oxford, 1972). 10. On the development of Constantine as both emperor and Christian see Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, and Jones, Constantine. For Eusebius's presentation of the ideology of the Christian Empire see G. F. Chesnut, The First Christian Histories (paris, 1977), pp. 61-166. 11. J. Toynbee and J. Ward Perkins, The Shrine of St. Peter and the Vatican Excuvations (London, 1956), plate 32 and pp. 72-4. 12. P. Bruun, 'The Disappearance of Sol from the coins of Constantine', Amos, ns 2 (1958), 15-37. 13. A. D. Nock, 'The Emperor's Divine Comes', Journal ofRoman Studies, 37 (1947), 102-16. See also S. G. MacCormack, 'Roma, Constantinopolis, the Emperor, and His Genius', ClassictJl Q!4arterly, 25 (1975), 131-50. 14. Toynbee and Ward Perkins, Shrine of St. Peter, pp.195-239; H. P. L'Orange, Art Fonns and Civic Life in the Later Roman Empire (princeton, 1965), pp. 79-85; R. Krautheimer, Early Christian and Byzantine Architec­ ture (Harmondsworth, 1965), pp. 17-44; idem, Rome: Profile of a City, 312-1308 (princeton, 1980), pp.3-31 and 42-5. Constantine built a smaller memorial church dedicated to St Paul, which was expanded to rival that of St Peter's under pope Damasus (366-84). 15. Krautheimer, Rome, pp. 7-8. 16. C.-M. Ternes, Romisches Deutschland (Stuttgart, 1986), p. 283. 17. S. G. MacCormack, Art and Ceremony in Late Antiquity (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1981). 18. Krautheimer, Rome, pp. 54-8; idem, Early Christian and Byzantine Archi­ teaure, pp. 25-6. 19. A. AlfOldi, The Conversion of Constantine and Pagan Rome (2nd edn, Oxford, 1969). 20. E. Kitzinger, Byzantine Art in the Making (London, 1977), pp.7-9 and plates 1-4. 21. Letter of Constantine I to Anullinus, Proconsul of Africa, in Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History, X. v. 15-17. On Anullinus see PLRE, I, pp.78-9 (Anullinus 2). 22. Eusebius, EcclesiastictJl History, IX. ii. l-iv. 4, for petitions against the Christians in Egypt, sent to Maximin II. 13. Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum, 48; Eusebius, EcclesiastictJl History, X. v. 1-14. 24. Eusebius, EcclesiastjctJl History, X. viii. 8-19. 25. P. Brown, The World ofLate Antiquity (London, 1971), pp. 34-40. 26. Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, pp. 62-4. 360 Notes to pp. 23-31 27. Ibid., pp. 64-77. 28. PLRE, vol. I, pp. 563 (Martinianus 2), and 931 (Valens 13). PLRE is wrong, however, in giving Martinianus only the title of Caesar. That he, like Valens, 'was an Augustus, is proved by his coinage: RIC, vol. 7, ed. P.