View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by Digitale Hochschulschriften der LMU Structural Convergence in Cyprus I E D P L‐M‐U M V O G I, T 2014 Erstgutachter: Prof. Dr. Wolfgang Schulze Zweitgutachter: Prof. Dr. Geoffrey Haig Datum der mündlichen Prüfung: 14.07.2014 Table of Contents List of Abbreviations ............................ ix 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Motivation .............................. 3 1.2 Previous Research .......................... 4 1.3 On Cyprus in General and the Focus of this Research ...... 5 1.4 Overview ............................... 7 2 eory 9 2.1 Variety, Language and Dialect ................... 10 2.2 Grammar eory .......................... 14 2.3 Contact Induced Language Change ................ 16 2.3.1 Innovation .......................... 21 2.3.2 Results of Contact-Induced Change in Language Mainte- nance Situations ...................... 25 2.3.3 Language Shi and Language Death ........... 27 2.4 Propagation and Sociolinguistic eory .............. 32 2.4.1 Convergence ........................ 38 3 Hypotheses and Methodology 41 3.1 Hypotheses and Predictions .................... 41 3.2 Methodology ............................. 42 3.2.1 eoretical Methodology .................. 42 3.2.2 Practical Methodology ................... 43 3.2.3 Collecting Data ....................... 45 3.2.4 Analyzing Data ....................... 50 i ii TABLE OF CONTENTS 4 Historical Baground 53 4.1 A Brief History of Speech Communities in Cyprus ........ 53 4.1.1 Armenian Cypriots ..................... 54 4.1.2 Greek Cypriots ....................... 58 4.1.3 Maronite Cypriots ..................... 60 4.1.4 Turkish Cypriots ...................... 62 4.1.5 Cypriot Roma/Gurbet ................... 64 4.1.6 Overview .......................... 66 4.2 Typology of Demographics ..................... 67 4.3 Contact of the Speech Communities ................ 70 4.4 Description of Language Contact in Selected Regions ...... 72 4.5 Language & Identity ......................... 83 4.6 Recapitulation ............................ 87 5 Language Information and Analysis 91 5.1 Cypriot Greek ............................ 92 5.1.1 Basic Information ...................... 92 5.1.2 Linguistic Information ................... 93 5.2 Cypriot Turkish ........................... 94 5.2.1 Basic Information ...................... 94 5.2.2 Linguistic Information ................... 95 5.3 Kormakiti Arabic .......................... 96 5.3.1 Basic Information ...................... 96 5.3.2 Linguistic Information ................... 98 5.3.3 Language Decay in Kormakiti Arabic ........... 99 5.4 Standards of the Varieties and Language Engineering ...... 107 6 Replications 109 6.1 Systematic Replications ....................... 110 6.1.1 Cypriot Greek ........................ 110 6.1.2 Cypriot Turkish ....................... 117 6.1.3 Kormakiti Arabic ...................... 149 6.2 Non-Systematic Replications .................... 168 TABLE OF CONTENTS iii 6.2.1 Cypriot Turkish ....................... 168 6.2.2 On Non-systematic Replications in Cypriot Greek and Kormakiti Arabic ...................... 170 6.3 General Discussion about Replications in Cyprus ........ 171 7 Discussion 175 7.1 On the Linguistic Mechanisms of Language Contact ....... 175 7.2 On the Propagation of the Replicated Constructions ....... 178 7.3 Typological Implications ...................... 181 7.4 Comparison of the Results with Similar Language Contact Situ- ations ................................. 183 7.4.1 On Replication of Relativization Strategies ........ 183 7.4.2 On Replication of the Indirective ............. 187 7.4.3 On Replication of Verbal Subordination ......... 187 7.4.4 On Polar estions ..................... 188 7.4.5 On Assimilation of Non-Arabic Maer .......... 190 7.5 Cyprus: A Linguistic Area? ..................... 190 7.5.1 Comparison of Languages of Cyprus with other Mediter- ranean Languages ..................... 192 7.5.2 Cyprus and the Balkan Sprachbund ............ 195 7.6 Expectations of Language Contact eory and the Reality .... 199 8 Conclusions 203 8.1 Recapitulation ............................ 203 8.2 Further Research ........................... 206 Appendices 209 Text Sample from Cypriot Greek ..................... 213 Text Sample from Cypriot Turkish .................... 219 Text Sample from Kormakiti Arabic ................... 225 iv TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Tables 2.1 omason & Kaufman Borrowing Scale .............. 19 2.2 Subtypes of reanalysis according to Cro (2000) ......... 23 2.3 Ordinary grammaticalization .................... 24 2.4 Replica grammaticalization ..................... 25 2.5 Typological changes ......................... 26 2.6 Propagation of innovations in one language ........... 35 3.1 Recordings Done by the Author .................. 46 3.2 Language Corpora .......................... 52 6.1 List of complementizers/relativizers in Cypriot Turkish ..... 129 6.2 List of Kormakiti Arabic Present Copula (Borg, 1985: 134) .... 149 6.3 Overview of paern replications in the languages of Cyprus .. 172 v vi LIST OF TABLES List of Figures 2.1 Language and its varieties ..................... 12 2.2 e internal structure of a construction (Cro, 2001: 204) .... 15 3.1 Origins of data in Cyprus ...................... 44 4.1 Timeline of speech communities on Cyprus ............ 67 4.2 List of factors important to ethnic vitality (Chríost (2003: 45)) .. 71 4.3 Historical population of the village Lurucina ........... 74 4.4 Historical population of the villages Dali, Potamia and Athienou in the vicinity of Lurucina ..................... 75 4.5 Historical population of the village Avtepe ............ 77 4.6 Historical population of the villages Derince, Kuruova, Adaçay and Taşlıca .............................. 78 4.7 Historical population of the village Vitsada ............ 80 4.8 Historical population of the villages Gonedra, Çatoz and Ipsillat 81 4.9 Historical population of the village Kormakitis .......... 82 4.10 Historical population of the villages Myrtou, Karpasia, Liveras . 83 4.11 Historical population of the village Kambyli ........... 84 4.12 Dominant languages in the studied regions ............ 89 6.1 Overview of constituent order in different verb constructions .. 119 6.2 Replication process in Cypriot Turkish polar questions ..... 125 7.1 Semantic Extension ......................... 177 7.2 Replication .............................. 178 7.3 Main Loci of Replications ...................... 180 vii viii LIST OF FIGURES 7.4 Propagation of Cypriot Turkish Innovations ........... 181 List of Abbreviations 1 first person PL plural 2 second person POSS possessive 3 third person PRF perfect ACC accusative PRIO Peace Research Institute Oslo ADVR adverbializer PRN pronoun AOR aorist PRS present ART article PST past CL clitic PURP purpisove COMP complementizer REL relative CONJ conjunction SG singular COP copula SPART subject participle DAT dative SUBJ subjunctive DEM demonstrative SUBR subordinator DPAR discourse particle WALS World Atlas of Language Structures DUR durative EXST existence F feminine FUT future GEN genitive HAB habilitative IMP imperative IMPF imperfective INF infinitive LOC locative M masculine N neuter NEC necessitative NEG negation, negative NOM nominative NR nominalizer OPART object participle OPT optative PART participle PRF perfective Anowledgements is research project came into existence with the help of various people and institutions. I am deeply grateful to my supervisors, Wolfgang Schulze and Ge- offrey Haig, without whose persistent and vital support this project would not have been possible. ey helped me transform my vague ideas of a PhD project into reality, and undertook complicated task of reading and correcting my project sketches. e idea for this research study originated from a smaller scaled one I conducted earlier during my master’s thesis, and I would like to thank to my previous supervisors John Peterson and Jan Wohlgemuth for helping me plant the seeds for this dissertation. I am also much obliged to the former coordinator of the PhD Programme LIPP, Caroline Trautmann, for her support from the very beginning of my involvement at LIPP until the end. Furthermore, I am much indebted to both the Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München and the Oo- Friedrich-Universität Bamberg for their financial aid during my stay in Germany and for my fieldwork research. Special thanks go to Ahmet Pehlivan, who provided me with sources on Cypriot Turkish as well as Gurbets in Cyprus; Spyros Armostis and Maria Petrou for sharing their linguistic knowledge about Cypriot Greek with me; and Mahias Kappler whose research on Cypriot Turkish was an eye-opener for me concern- ing syntactic borrowings. I am deeply indebted to Elias Zonias for helping me understand Kormakiti Arabic and in approaching to the beautiful people of Kor- makitis. I also want to thank several people for aiding me in understanding the land which I call home in various different ways, and for sharing their per- sonal stories with me. For this reason, I am grateful to Ahmet Ertaç, Akile Çatal, Alexander-Michael Hadjilyra, Andreas Arnaoutis, Andreas Kasenides, Angelos Toumazos, Halil Mani, George Skordis, Hasan Barbaros, Konstantinos Karmel- los, Levon Sariyan, Maria Skoullou, Michalis Loizides, Michalis Germanos, Salih Bayraktar, Savvas Yasi, Simon Aynedjian, Soner Lama, Süleyman Kaptan, Varol Baykara, and Yannis Pachitas. Furthermore, I want to thank Kathleen Rabl for proofreading this thesis,