Human Response to Environmental Hazards: Sunset Crater as a Case Study Item Type text; Electronic Thesis Authors May, Elizabeth Marie Publisher The University of Arizona. Rights Copyright © is held by the author. Digital access to this material is made possible by the University Libraries, University of Arizona. Further transmission, reproduction or presentation (such as public display or performance) of protected items is prohibited except with permission of the author. Download date 24/09/2021 23:19:19 Link to Item http://hdl.handle.net/10150/193470 1 HUMAN RESPONSE TO ENVIRONMENTAL HAZARDS: SUNSET CRATER AS A CASE STUDY by Elizabeth May ________________________ Copyright © Elizabeth May 2008 A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of the DEPARTMENT OF ANTHROPOLOGY In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements For the Degree of MASTER OF ARTS In the Graduate College THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA 2008 2 STATEMENT BY AUTHOR This thesis has been submitted in partial fulfillment of requirements for an advanced degree at the University of Arizona and is deposited in the University Library to be made available to borrowers under rules of the Library. Brief quotations from this thesis are allowable without special permission, provided that accurate acknowledgment of source is made. Requests for permission for extended quotation from or reproduction of this manuscript in whole or in part may be granted by the copyright holder. SIGNED:___Elizabeth M. May________ APPROVAL BY THESIS DIRECTOR This thesis has been approved on the date shown below: ________________________ _ April 15, 2008 Jeffrey S. Dean Date Professor of Anthropology Professor of Dendrochronology 3 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I owe many thanks to my committee; to Jeff Dean for all of the advice and for your patience helping me find just the right dusty old box, to Mark Elson for teaching me about all things Sinagua and always being willing to hear my ideas, to Barbara Mills for keeping me in line and improving the quality of my work, and most especially to Paul Sheppard. You have been a true mentor. Thank you for never giving up on me. Kirk Anderson and Michael Ort, thank you for allowing me to be a part of this project. Thanks to Desert Archaeology for teaching me, employing me, and supporting me. Mike Schiffer and Barnet Pavao-Zuckerman, thank you for the continued encouragement. I am indebted to Dave Killick and the IGERT program in archaeological science for providing support and experience, and to Cathy Snider for making sense of everything. None of this work would be any good or any fun without the Ramada Society, Ne fidos inter amicos sit Qui dicta foras eliminate . Ashley Blythe, my other twin, thanks for all the beerfee. Whitney, Karinna, and Emily, you’re the greatest. Thanks to my parents and my family, Marge and Bill, Jennie, Karen, Shawn, Katie, Mark, Patrick, Liam, Jeanne, and Doug for always being there. Thank you so much, Rob Jones, for being perfect. 4 TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES...............................................................................................................6 LIST OF FIGURES .............................................................................................................7 ABSTRACT.........................................................................................................................8 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION..................................................................................9 CHAPTER TWO: HUMAN RESPONSES TO NATURAL DISASTER ........................13 Definitions ....................................................................................................................13 Factors Affecting Event Magnitude ..........................................................................14 Recognizing Natural Hazards in Prehistory .............................................................17 CHAPTER THREE: MODELING HUMAN RESPONSE...............................................21 Hazard Criteria .............................................................................................................22 Social Criteria ..............................................................................................................24 Evaluation of Criteria ..................................................................................................25 Responses ..................................................................................................................29 Migration ...................................................................................................................30 Adaptation .................................................................................................................34 Model Construction ....................................................................................................36 CHAPTER FOUR: SUNSET CRATER AS CASE STUDY............................................41 Environmental Setting ................................................................................................41 Eruption Date and Determination of Onset, Duration, and Response ..................42 Palaeomagnetism and Geomorphology .................................................................43 5 TABLE OF CONTENTS- Continued Tree-Ring Studies .....................................................................................................45 Tornado Study.........................................................................................................52 Dendromorphological Responses ...........................................................................56 Dendrochemistry.....................................................................................................59 Summary of Eruption Evidence..............................................................................61 Archaeological Evidence .........................................................................................62 Eruptive Effects: The Eruption of Sunset Crater .....................................................75 CHAPTER FIVE: EVALUATION OF SUNSET CRATER RESPONSE AND EFFICACY OF MODEL...................................................................................................78 Posteruption Population Density and Complexity ..................................................79 CHAPTER SIX: DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS..................................................86 Irish Potato Famine .....................................................................................................87 The Fire of London .....................................................................................................88 The Great Drought .......................................................................................................90 REFERENCES ..................................................................................................................94 6 LIST OF TABLES TABLE 1. Model Conditions…………………………………………………………….22 TABLE 2. A Model for Human Response to Environmental Disaster…………………..40 TABLE 3. US89 Project Dated Sites…………………………………………………….69 TABLE 4. Environmental Disturbance…………………………………………………..73 TABLE 5.Temperature Variability………………………………………………………74 7 LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE 1. Map of Arizona including Sunset Crater and San Francisco Volcanic Field……………………………………………………..12 FIGURE 2. AD 1064 Response in Wupatki Wood……..……………………………….47 FIGURE 3. Ring-width Responses to the 1992 Tornado………………………………..55 FIGURE 4. Trees Showing Ring-Width Responses in AD 1060s…….………………...57 FIGURE 5. Trees Showing Ring-Width Responses in AD 1080s and 1090s….……..…58 FIGURE 6. Depth of Ashfall from Sunset Crater Eruption…………………………...…65 FIGURE 7. Dated Sites Excavated in the US89 Project…………………………………68 8 ABSTRACT Natural disasters and rapid environmental changes have resulted in a continuum of responses by human societies throughout history. A model is proposed that incorporates cultural and environmental aspects of human response to natural disasters. The 11 th century eruption of Sunset Crater volcano in northern Arizona is used as a case study in which the archaeological record and dendrochronological and geomorphological evidence are combined to characterize the nature of the human response. The model predicts that the population at Sunset Crater would have been pressured to move, or to move and make cultural or technological adaptations following the eruption. The model has utility in diverse conditions and can be used to interpret archaeological remains and facilitate modern disaster response. 9 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION Environmental hazards occur throughout history, and human groups respond to those events in varied and complex ways. The response of prehistoric populations to disaster or catastrophe often cannot be directly observed in the archaeological record because of destructive effects or because of the subtlety of human responses. It is possible, however to infer likely population responses based on an understanding of the social organizational conditions and environmental pressures placed on a society by a disaster or catastrophe (Dean 1988). To do this, a model of predicted responses given specific environmental and social circumstances are proposed and tested. The model is developed using observed responses to modern disasters. Paleoenvironmental and archaeological data relating to the 11 th century eruption of Sunset Crater volcano provide a case study that is used to evaluate the efficacy of the model in interpreting prehistoric disaster response.