112 Phoenicopteridae: flamingos and maximal June–November (A.J.W. Greater Flamingo pers. obs). Elsewhere numbers vary with Grootflamink local wetland conditions. Interspecific relationships: It Phoenicopterus ruber often occurs with the Lesser Flamingo Phoeniconaias minor, but feeds on Southern African Greater Flamingos larger food items, less frequently at night belong to the Old World race P. r. roseus and in also in less calm water. It breeds whose total population is c. 800 000 at less saline sites, and earlier than the birds; they breed at c. 25 localities in Lesser Flamingo. White Pelicans Pele- Africa, around the Mediterranean Sea canus onocrotalus may displace breed- and from the Middle East to India. The ing flamingos once the latter have shown nominate race occurs in the Caribbean a breeding locality to be safe (Berry et al. (Del Hoyo et al. 1992). The species is 1973). Marabou Storks Leptoptilos cru- widespread along the southern African meniferus are major predators at colon- coast, with conspicuous gaps in southern ies in East Africa (Del Hoyo et al. 1992). Namibia and from east of Algoa Bay Historical distribution and con- (3326CD) to Durban Bay (2931CC). servation: There is no evidence of his- The distribution over the Free State and torical change in distribution, or of a southern Transvaal closely matches the decrease in numbers, but all flamingo distribution of endorheic pans (Allan et populations are under stress (Brooke al. 1995c). There are scattered records 1984b; Del Hoyo et al. 1992). It is im- from wetlands in the central Cape Province, Zimbabwe and perative that the few critical breeding localities are protected; all Namibia. The distribution map masks the extreme focus on a few forms of disturbance, including low-flying aircraft, need to be localities, notably coastal wetlands in Namibia, the southwestern minimized during breeding. At both breeding and nonbreeding Cape Province, and at Lake St Lucia. Large numbers were localities, threats include pollutants, fences across waterbodies and reported in the early 1970s in northern Botswana, with 65 000– nearby utility lines, and developments at and around wetlands 100 000 birds at Lake Ngami in December 1971 and c. 300 000 (Hall 1983; Brooke 1984b). A veterinary cordon fence through at the Makgadikgadi Pans in November 1974 (Dawson & Jacka Sua Pan forms a serious obstacle for chicks following receding 1975; Parker 1975). water on foot (M. Herremans pers. comm.). Construction of The principal breeding localities are Etosha Pan and Sua Pan saltworks, which provide permanent shallow feeding areas, has in the Makgadikgadi. These localities support up to c. 26 000 pairs been beneficial, but at inland localities this could damage tradi- (Berry 1972; Liversedge 1989). These probably form one popu- tional breeding sites. Natural problems occur through fluctuating lation which selects the locality with the better breeding condi- water-levels at breeding localities; excessive water may flood tions. Elsewhere in southern Africa, breeding is erratic; localities nests, and premature dry-down provides predators access to breed- are Lake Ngami (2022B) (Andersson & Gurney 1872; Fraser ing colonies, or traps chicks in saline mud. 1971); Bredasdorp (3420CC) in 1960 with 1600 adults and 350 fledglings (Uys et al. 1961, 1963; Uys & Macleod 1967); and A.J. Williams and C. Velásquez Lake St Lucia (2832CB) in 1972 with 4000 young from 6000 nests (Porter & Forrest 1974). At least six other breeding attempts in the Transvaal, Free State and Cape Province apparently did not Recorded in 677 grid cells, 14.9% produce fledglings (Brooke 1984b). Total number of records: 7589 Habitat: Its favoured foraging areas are open shallow eutrophic Mean reporting rate for range: 11.7% wetlands (Brooke 1984b). It occasionally forages along sandy coasts. It feeds mainly on small invertebrates (crustaceans, dipterid larvae, etc.) filtered from water with a depth range of 70–130 cm. It usually breeds colonially on mudflats in large pans inaccessible Reporting rates for vegetation types to mammalian predators and lacking feeding perches for raptors. % 0816 Movements: Breeding localities, and most inland pans, dry up during winter, forcing flamingos to move to coastal wetlands. In Sweet Grasslands 15.7 years of poor rains, many birds remain at the coast through the Namib 11.6 summer. Along the Namibian coast, flamingos moving to breed- Fynbos 10.7 ing grounds fly northwards over inshore waters in the late after- Succulent Karoo 10.1 noon, and move inland after dark. At 50–60 km/h the flamingos Mixed Grasslands 7.4 reach Etosha Pan, about 500 km inland, before daybreak. Pans in Central Kalahari 6.8 Bushmanland provide stopover sites en route to the Makgadikgadi East Coast Littoral 4.7 Pans. Birds colliding with overhead power lines in Zimbabwe are Grassy Karoo 4.5 thought to be on a flight path between the Makgadikgadi and Sour Grasslands 3.9 coastal wetlands in Mozambique (Mundy & Chabikwa 1991). Northern Kalahari 3.6 What triggers movement, for example from the rainless coast of Mopane 3.4 the Namib Desert to inland pans, is not known. Vernon (1986a) Nama Karoo 2.1 pointed out that rainfall over much of southern Africa is produced Valley Bushveld 2.1 by thunderstorms, and the associated lightning, visible at night Arid Woodland 1.2 over several hundred kilometres, may be a visual cue. Okavango 0.9 Breeding: It breeds after summer rains have filled saline pans, Moist Woodland 0.8 and disperses once these dry out. Numbers at Walvis Bay Miombo 0.3 (2214DC) are, on average, minimal in late February and March Namibian Escarpment 0.2 Phoenicopteridae: flamingos 113 14˚ GREATER FLAMINGO 5 1 18˚ 22˚ 2 6 26˚ 3 7 30˚ Reporting rate (%) > 15.5 6.7 — 15.5 2.0 — 6.6 < 2.0 34˚ 4 8 18˚ 22˚ 26˚ 14˚ 30˚ 10˚ 34˚ 15 1 5 40 10 20 5 15 2 6 40 10 20 5 15 3 7 40 10 20 5 15 Occurrence reporting rate (%) 4 8 40 Breeding reporting rate (%) 10 20 5 J ASONDJ FMAMJ J ASONDJ FMAMJ Models of seasonality for Zones. Number of records (top to bottom, left to right): Occurrence: 107, 265, 200, 547, 66, 132, 1310, 33; Breeding: 6, 2, 7, 2, 0, 5, 26, 0..