GERMAN IMPERIALISM IN THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE: A COMPARATIVE STUDY A Dissertation by NILES STEFAN ILLICH Submitted to the Office of Graduate Studies of Texas A&M University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY December 2007 Major Subject: History GERMAN IMPERIALISM IN THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE: A COMPARATIVE STUDY A Dissertation by NILES STEFAN ILLICH Submitted to the Office of Graduate Studies of Texas A&M University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Approved by: Chair of Committee, Arnold Krammer Committee Members, Chester Dunning Henry Schmidt Robert Shandley Head of Department, Walter Buenger December 2007 Major Subject: History iii ABSTRACT German Imperialism in the Ottoman Empire: A Comparative Study. (December 2007) Niles Stefan Illich, B.A., Texas A&M University; M.A., Clemson University Chair of Advisory Committee: Dr. Arnold Krammer The conventional understanding of German expansion abroad, between unification (1871) and the First World War (1914), is that Germany established colonies in Africa, the Pacific Islands, and to a lesser degree in China. This colonialism began in 1884 with the recognition of German Southwest Africa. This dissertation challenges these conventionally accepted notions about German expansion abroad. The challenge presented by this dissertation is a claim that German expansionism included imperial activity in the Ottoman Empire. Although the Germans did not develop colonies in the Ottoman Empire, German activity in the Middle East conformed closely to the established model for imperialism in the Ottoman Empire; the British established this model in the 1840s. By considering the economic, political, military, educational, and cultural activities of the Germans in the Ottoman Empire it is evident that the Ottoman Empire must be considered in the historiography of German expansionism. When expanding into the Ottoman Empire the Germans followed the model established by the British. Although deeply involved in the Ottoman Empire, German activity was not militaristic or even aggressive. Indeed, the Germans asserted themselves iv less successfully than the British or the French. Thus, this German expansion into the Ottoman Empire simultaneously addresses the question of German exceptionalism. v DEDICATION To my brother—a finer friend I will never have. vi ACKNOWLEDGMENTS All of my scholarly interests and accomplishments have the same origin—a paper I wrote in 1995 on the Nazi Party in Mexico. Professor Arnold Krammer accepted me as a project and permitted me to do as much research as I could; before this project I had never heard of the National Archives. My friendship and relationship with Professor Krammer has prospered since that original project, and I am saddened that the conclusion of this dissertation will mean that I am no longer one of his students. In addition to a wonderful relationship with Dr. Krammer I have also benefited from the friendship, guidance, and demanding requirements of my other committee members. Among those, I owe a particular debt to Professor Bob Shandley who discussed dissertation topics with me for almost a full year and did far more than I could have expected from a committee member from an outside field. Professor Shandley was always willing to lunch, whether we were in Germany or College Station, and discuss the dissertation. I am also indebted to Professor Chester Dunning who permitted me to work closely with him on Early Modern Europe, and who constantly provided me with intellectual and academic challenges. Further, Professor Dunning trusted me enough to tell me about the “other side” of academics. We discussed topics ranging from personality conflicts to the always difficult academic job market. The purpose of these discussions was sometimes to help me avoid problems, but more frequently to help me understand what I was getting myself into as I prepared for an academic career. Lastly, I want to thank my friend Professor Hank Schmidt. Not only have I taken numerous classes from him, but I always enjoyed talking with him about fly-fishing and the Southwest. vii In addition to a tremendous committee, I have also been fortunate to work for professors who took a real interest in my academic and intellectual development. Professors Canup, Anderson, Stranges, Adams, and Dunlap provided me with excellent opportunities to lecture and teach. I am particularly thankful to Professor Gerald Betty, who contributed significantly to this dissertation, to my academic career, and to my general disposition. Lastly, I am especially grateful to Professor Jim Rosenheim who, as the Director of the Melbern G. Glasscock Center, I came to know quite well. The year I spent as a Glasscock Graduate Scholar was the most important intellectual experience of my life; during that year I wrote this entire dissertation with the exception of chapter I and the conclusion. I would not have made such progress without the resources provided by the Glasscock Center. I am also grateful to the many friends I developed in graduate school, some of whom were my students and others were my colleagues. However, without Inna Rodchenko, Sudina Paungpetch, Andy Clink, Thomas Nester, Derrick Mallet, Chris Mortenson, Troy Blanton, and Kevin Motl I would not look back on graduate school as fondly as I do. I apologize to those whom I hurt when I put school in front of them—it turns out I was wrong. Lastly, I was also fortunate to have a wonderful staff to assist me. However, nearly all of these people became my friends, and I count them among my favorite people in the department. Among the most important are Kelly Cook, Barbara Dawson, and Judy Mattson. However, a special place will always exist for Jude Swank and Annette Turner. A graduate education is a luxury, and I would not have been able to enjoy this luxury without the support of my family. My parents made a financial and emotional investment in my academic career, and I could not have accomplished it without them. viii My sister did a better job pretending to be interested in my research than anyone else, and I am enjoying her real interest in my legal career. I lived with my brother for almost my entire doctoral program, and there is no one with whom I would rather be than him. Thanks for everything brother. ix TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ABSTRACT................................................................................................................... iii DEDICATION................................................................................................................ v ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.............................................................................................. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS................................................................................................ ix CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION................................................................................... 1 II THE HISTORIOGRAPHY OF GERMAN COLONIALISM: PROBLEMS AND POTENTIAL.......................................................... 12 III THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE AND THE GREAT POWERS: IMPERIALISM AND EUROPEAN EXPANSION, 1850-1914.......... 34 IV THE BRITISH MODEL OF IMPERIALISM IN THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE, 1838-1880.............................................................................. 65 British Economic and Commercial Influence in the Ottoman Empire up to 1878............................................................................ 70 British Involvement in Ottoman Construction, Military, and Governmental Affairs...................................................................... 89 British Cultural Imperialism............................................................ 111 Conclusion………………………………………………………... 121 V THE RISE OF GERMANY AND GERMAN ECONOMIC IMPERIALISM IN THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE.................................. 125 German Commercial Imperialism in the Ottoman Empire............ 143 VI GERMAN POLITICAL IMPERIALISM IN THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE, 1877-1908............................................................................ 169 German Military Relations with the Ottoman Empire.................... 197 VII GERMAN CULTURAL IMPERIALISM AND THE CULTURE OF IMPERIALISM IN THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE................................. 204 x CHAPTER Page VIII CONCLUSION.................................................................................... 234 REFERENCES............................................................................................................ 246 VITA............................................................................................................................ 265 1 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Article one hundred-fifty five of the Treaty of Versailles, which is located in a section of the treaty devoted to German interests in China (articles 128-134), Egypt (articles 148-154) and other such territories, reads as follows: Germany undertakes to recognize and accept all arrangements which the Allied and Associated Powers may make with Turkey and Bulgaria with reference to any rights, interests and privileges whatever which might be claimed by Germany or her nationals in Turkey and Bulgaria and which are not dealt with in the provisions of the present Treaty. The reference to “any rights, interests and privileges whatever might be claimed by Germany” attests to the unusual imperial relationship that existed between Germany and the Ottoman Empire. In spite of this obvious historical reference to the German relationship with the Ottoman Empire,