C Programming For Problem Solving Course Code :18CPS13/23 Semester :I/II CIE Marks :40 SEE Marks : 60 Prepared By Muzammil Dakhani Department of Computer Science Engineering ZEROETH GENERATION • Man used his fingers, ropes, beads, bones, pebbles and other objects for counting. • Abacus, Pascaline, Difference & Anylitical engines • Electricity was not yet invented FIRST GENERATION 1951 – 1958: The Vacuum Tube • The first generation of computers, characterized by vacuum tubes, started in 1951 with the creation of - UNIVAC (Universal Automatic Computer) – a tabulating machine which won the contest for the fastest machine which could count the US 1890 census. • The first computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory. • They were often enormous and taking up entire room. • First generation computers relied on machine language. • They were very expensive to operate and in addition to using a great deal of electricity, generated a lot of heat, which was often the cause of malfunctions. The UNIVAC and ENIAC computers are examples of first- generation computing devices. VACUUM TUBES – electronic tubes about the size of light bulbs. Second generation computers (1956-1963) : The Transistor The year 1959 marked the invention of transistors, which characterized the second generation of computers. TRANSISTOR – was a three-legged component which shrunk the size of the first generation computers. Occupied only 1/100th of the space occupied by a vacuum tube More reliable, had greater computational speed, required no warm-up time and consumed far less electricity. • Transistors replaced vacuum tubes and ushered in the second generation of computers. • Second-generation computers moved from cryptic binary machine language to symbolic. • High-level programming languages were also being developed at this time, such as early versions of COBOL and FORTRAN. • These were also the first computers that stored their instructions in their memory. THIRD GENERATION : The Integrated Circuit (1964-1971) Third generation computers arose in 1964 with the invention of smaller electronic circuits called integrated circuits (IC’S) INTEGRATED CIRCUITS – are square silicon chips containing circuitry that can perform the functions of hundreds of transistors. • The development of the integrated circuit was the hallmark of the third generation of computers. • Transistors were miniaturized and placed on siliconchips, called semiconductors. • Instead of punched cards and printouts, users interacted with third generation computers through keyboards and monitors and interfaced with an operating system. • Allowed the device to run many different applications at one time. ADVANTAGES • RELIABILITY – Unlike vacuum tubes, silicon will not break down easily. It is very seldom that you will have to replace it. • LOW COST – Silicon chips are relatively cheap because of their small size and availability in the market. It also consumes less electricity. Fourth generation computers (1971-present): The Microprocessor • The microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers, as thousands of integrated circuits were built onto a single silicon chip. • The Intel 4004 chip, developed in 1971, located all the components of the computer. • From the central processing unit and memory to input/output controls—on a single chip. • Fourth generation computers also saw the development of GUIs, the mouse and handheld devices. • Marked by the use of microprocessor • MICROPROCESSOR – is a silicon chip that contains the CPU – part of the computer where all processing takes place. 4004 chip – was the first microprocessor introduced by Intel Corporation. Fifth generation computers (present and beyond) • is classified as fourth generation computers. • faster, more powerful, tremendous data storage and processing capacity • new brands and models would come out the market almost every other month. • many clones or imitations of the IBM have become even more powerful and a lot cheaper. • Fifth generation computing devices, based on artificial intelligence. • Are still in development, though there are some applications, such as voice recognition. • The use of parallel processing and superconductors is helping to make artificial intelligence a reality. • The goal of fifth-generation computing is to develop devices that respond to natural language input and are capable of learning and self-organization. • computers became more affordable • computers can now be found in homes, schools, offices etc. • there has been a tremendous improvement in software technology. • different software applications to choose from: word processing, spreadsheets, database management, games and entertainment. • computer subjects are now being offered not just to college students but even to high school and elementary. • computers are now used as an aid in teaching math, science etc. Types of Computers • On the basis of configuration that is architecture, processing, power, size of main memory and other capabilities, computer can be divided in the following classes. • Super Computer • Mainframe Computer. • Mini Computer • Micro Computer. Super Computer These are the • Largest. • Fastest. • Expensive. • Can handle over 10,000 users. • Parallel Processing. USE OF SUPERCOMPUTER • Super computers are used for solving complex application such as Global Weather Forecasting. Creating graphic images, engineering design and testing, space exploration and other problems where it is necessary to process huge quantities of data quickly. • Cost: Several million dollars. • Speed: 60 billion instructions per second. • Size: Automobile Sized. Mainframe Computer • Mainframe computer is usually slower, less Powerful and less expensive than super Computer. • Mainframe computer can handle over hundreds of users . USE OF MAINFRAME COMPUTER • Mainframe Computer are useful for dealing with large over changing collection of data that are accessed by many users Simultaneously such as banks, airlines, railways. • Cost: Several hundred thousands dollars. • Speed: 250 million instructions per second. • Size: Refrigerator Sized. Mini Computer • Mini computers are lower to mainframe computers in terms of speed and storage capacity. They are also less expensive than mainframe computers. Some of the features of mainframes will not be available in mini computers. Hence, their performance also will be less than that of mainframes. USE OF MINI COMPUTER • Tele communications. • Cost: 25000 Dollars to Over 150,000 Dollars. • Speed: 150 million instruction per second • Size: Filling Cabinet size. Micro Computer • The invention of microprocessor (single chip CPU) gave birth to the much cheaper micro computers. They are further classified into • Personal Computers • Laptop Computers • Handheld Computers(PDAs) Personal Computer • They are usually easier to use and more affordable. They are normally intended for individual users for their word processing and other small application Requirements. • Desktop • Tower What is a bit? • Bit is short for 'binary digit.' It's a single digit in a binary number, and it can be either 1 or 0.Inside a computer, you can think of a bit as being a mechanical switch, which can be either switched on or off. • Now if you only have one of these switches, you can only store two different states, on or off. This is useful in itself, you can record that something is either true or false... • But if you have, say, eight of them, you can store 256 different combinations of on and off states between the eight switches. What is a byte? • A byte is 8 bits. That's the definition. With 8 bits you can store any number between 0 and 255, since there are 256 different combinations of 1 and 0 to choose from. • Why eight bits? The original intention was that, when storing text, 8 bits would be enough to assign a unique number every possible language character you might want to use in your document. The idea was that each character in a file would take up one byte of memory (in most cases, this is still true). • Let's see: there are 26 uppercase letters (A-Z), 26 lowercase (a-z), 10 numerical digits(0-9), 32 punctuation characters and other symbols on a US keyboard, the space character That's already 94 different characters. Then there's a few characters for creating newlines, a tab character for indentations, there's even a 'bell' character which programs would output in order to make the user's terminal beep. You can see how it all adds up What is a word? • You often hear about 32-bit or 64-bit computer architectures. A word is basically the number of bits a particular computer's CPU can deal with in one go. • It varies depending on the computer architecture you're using. Imagine looking at an imaginary computer's circuitry very closely. On a 32-bit machine, you would see 32 wires running parallel to each other between the computer's memory controller and the CPU, for the purpose of giving the CPU access to one particular word of memory. • Actually, there would be an additional 32 wires (perhaps less) for the CPU to select a particular memory address to access. If a CPU can access 32 bits of memory in one go, then it turns out that it makes a lot of sense to address the computer's memory using ≤32 bits. (This happens to be why the 32-bit version of Windows can't deal with more than 2GB of RAM, but the 64-bit version can.) Bits ,Bytes and Words Definitions • Bit = Binary digit = 0 or 1 • Byte = a sequence of 8 bits = 00000000, 00000001, ..., or 11111111 • Word = a sequence of N bits where N = 16, 32, 64 depending on