Lublin Studies in Modern Languages and Literature VOL. 43 No 4 (2019) FACULTY OF HUMANITIES MARIA CURIE-SKŁODOWSKA UNIVERSITY LUBLIN STUDIES IN MODERN LANGUAGES AND LITERATURE UMCS 43(4)2019 http://journals.umcs.pl/lsml ii e-ISSN:.2450-4580. Publisher:.. Maria.Curie-Skłodowska.University.. Lublin,.Poland. Maria.Curie-Skłodowska.University.Press. MCSU.Library.building,.3rd.floor. ul ..Idziego.Radziszewskiego.11,.20-031.Lublin,.Poland. phone:.(081).537.53.04. e-mail:.sekretariat@wydawnictwo .umcs .lublin .pl www .wydawnictwo .umcs .lublin .pl Editorial Board Editor-in-Chief Jolanta Knieja,.Maria.Curie-Skłodowska.University,.Lublin,.Poland Deputy Editors-in-Chief Jarosław Krajka,.Maria.Curie-Skłodowska.University,.Lublin,.Poland Anna Maziarczyk,.Maria.Curie-Skłodowska.University,.Lublin,.Poland Statistical Editor Tomasz Krajka,.Lublin.University.of.Technology,.Poland. International Advisory Board Anikó Ádám,.Pázmány.Péter.Catholic.University,.Hungary. 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Volume 43, Issue 4 Differentiating between machine translation and student translation: red flags and salient lexicogrammatical features. 1 Andrew Innes Eficacia de la política reguladora en el ámbito de la ortografía. 15 Nina Klekot Catering to Multiple Audiences: Language Diversity in Singapore’s Chinatown Food Stall Displays. 31 Selim Ben Said, Teresa Wai See Ong Computer-assisted assessment: Application of computerised testing at the Institute of English Studies at the University of Lodz, Poland. 49 Olga Trendak The Fourth Space as an Escape from Colliding Cultures in Mohja Kahf’s The Girl in the Tangerine Scarf. 63 Ishak Adel Berrebbah The Uncanny and the Ghostly Nature of the World in Stanley Kubrick’s The Shining (1980) . 77 Gabriele Biotti Translations of Ossian, Thomas Moore and the Gothic by 19th Century European Radical Intellectuals: The Democratic Eastern Federation. 89 Kathleen Ann O’Donnell The Potential of RAFT Strategy for Improving Jordanian EFL Students’ Creative Writing. .105 Na’ela Jumah Al-Mahdawi, Oqla Mahmoud Al-Smadi Shaping the Way We Teach English: Potential Effects of a Professional Development Program on Jordanian EFL Teachers’ Instructional Practices. .115 Ruba Fahmi Bataineh, Lubna Ahmad Shawish, Mohammad Khalid Al-Alawneh E-texts or p-texts? Evidence from reading comprehension tasks for Polish teenage learners of English. .127 Klaudia Gąsior An explorative study on media effects in vocabulary learning. .147 Hans Giessen Foreign language learning: controversies of virtuality and globality . .155 Vaida Žegunienė, Laima Kuprienė LUBLIN STUDIES IN MODERN LANGUAGES AND LITERATURE, 43(4), 2019, HTTP://LSMLL.JOURNALS.UMCS.PL Andrew Innes Mukogawa Women`s University, Japan [email protected] https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6080-0566 Differentiating between machine translation and student translation: red flags and salient lexicogrammatical features ABSTRACT Machine translation enables students to produce work in the target L2 which may be superior to that which they could produce otherwise. The present study examines whether the use of machine translation can be detected by teachers. Seventeen native teachers compared and assessed the authorship of five human translations (HT) and five machine translations (MT) of Japanese news stories. Finding suggest that native teachers were able to detect which essays had been written using HT and which had been written using MT. Keywords: SFL, machine translation. Introduction Negative sentiments of machine translation (MT) are borne out by Van Praag` who view it as a `challenge to [their] knowledge and expertise`, and a `nuisance and distraction`. Simply banning MT has been found to be ineffective as students will use it regardless (Kazemzadeh & Kashani, 2014). While exact figures pertaining to student use of MT will perhaps be confounded by worries around personal disclosure, a study at Duke University found that more than 88% of L2 students admitted to having used it, with 77% of instructors being opposed to its use (Clifford, Merschel, & Reisinger, 2013, p. 44). Elsewhere, Briggs (2018, p. 13) found that 57.5% of Korean students strongly agreed with the statement, `I do not need to learn to write in English because [online] translators can do the work for me`. Indeed, the notion that using MT even constitutes cheating or plagiarism appears to be up for debate. Using a five-point Likert Scale ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree, White and Heidrich (2013) received a mean of 3.59 when asking eighteen German students the degree to which they agreed with the statement, “I feel like I might have cheated” (p. 241). DOI: 10.17951/lsmll.2019.43.4.1-13 2 Andrew Innes The underlying epistemology for negative attitudes towards MT is perhaps better understood when viewed through the lens of the sociocultural paradigm espoused by Vygotsky (1978). Scaffolding refers to bridging the gap between what students can do on their own, and with the help of a more knowledgeable other. This largely goes against the cognitive apprenticeship model as elucidated by Gibbons (2008) which, “is particularly concerned with making thinking and the implicit processes of problem solving visible” (p. 169). Gibbons points out the importance of being “treated as apprentices in a disciplinary community, rather than as passive receivers of knowledge” (p. 170). It could be argued that the problem for educators wishing to utilize a Vygotskyian approach in the classroom is that MT turns students into the kinds of passive recipients which Gibbons alludes to. This is compounded by the fact that essays written in the student`s native language and subsequently machine translated, lack the cognitive engagement which takes place when the student does the translation by themselves. The idea that MT has been five years away from being perfect for the last fifty years is often used to dismiss it (see for example, Lommel, 2019). News stories about botched machine translations serve to maintain the notion that MT is awkward, not to be trusted, and the source of much embarrassment (see for example, Sugiyama, 2019). Indeed, such criticisms are not limited to the lack of cognitive engagement, transference of skills to verbal communication, and sole use of the L1. While accepting that there are exceptions to the rule, Hall (1976) categorizes Japanese as a high context culture, suggesting that its message is often more implicit and less direct. This contrasts with the way in which trade languages, of which English is one, are required to be more specific and explicit due to the low degree of shared understanding (Hall, 1976). Given the status of English`s as a lingua franca, which has been estimated to be spoken by more non-native speakers than native speakers at a ratio of three to one, this is understandable (Crystal, 2003, p. 69). Hall`s concept dovetails with Davies and Ikeno (2002) discussion of the Japanese concept of `aimai` (曖昧), which can be translated as `vague`, and is viewed as a concept which is not only tolerated, but also seen as a virtue of Japanese culture. While not explicitly using the term geographical determinism, Davis and Ikeno (2002) argue that the mountainous terrain of Japan formed