Mi'kmmey Mawio'mi: Changing Roles of the Mi'kmaq Grand Council From the Early Seventeenth Century to the Present Leslie Jane McMillan A thesis submitted to the Department of Sociology and Social Anthropology in partial fulNment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts Dalhousie University Halifax, Nova Scotia December, 1996 @LeslieJane McMillan, 1996 NaROMI UUElJy DIUIIVUlCtqU~K iauui WG of Canada du Canada Acquisitions and Acquisitions et Bibliographie SeMces services bibliographiques 395 Wellington Street 395, nie Wellington OttawaON K1AONQ ûîtawaON K1AOPM Canada Canada The author bas granted a non- L'auteur a accordé une licence non exclusive licence allowing the exclusive permettant à la National Library of Canada to Bibliothèque nationale du Canada de reproduce, loan, distri'bute or seU reproduire, prêter, distribuer ou copies of this thesis in microform, vendre des copies de cette thèse sous paper or electronic fonnats. la fonne de microfiche/film de reproduction sur papier ou sur format électronique. The author retains ownership of the L'auteur conserve la propriété du copyright in this thesis. Neither the droit d'auteur qui protège cette thèse. thesis nor substantial extracts fkom it Ni la thèse ni des extraits substantiels may be printed or otherwise de celle-ci ne doivent être imprimés reproduced without the author's ou autrement reproduits sans son permission. autorisation. Mi'bmvey Mmuio'mk Changing Roles of the Mi'kmaq Grand Council From the Early Seventeenth Century to the Present Table of Contents iv List of Illustrations vii viii List of Abbreviations Acknowledgements Introduction Theoretical Framework Methodology Chapter One: Mi9kmaqLife ways at Eariy Contact Traditionai Times Population Abundance of Food Pre-contact Technologies Language Spirituality Pre-contact Social and Political Organization The Seven Dismcts of the Mi'kmaq Nation Political Organization - The Structure and Roles of the Grand Council Characteristics and Roles of the Grand Council Grand Council Activities Grand Chief Membertou Chapter Two - The Collision and the Conversion Effects of Early European Contact The Conversion of Grand Chief Membertou Chapter Three - Decline of Mi'kmaq Society During Colonization Drastic Population Declb Changes in Social and Spiritual Organization Political Strategies - Wars and Ailiaoces in the 1700's The Treaty Period Treaty of 1725 Treaty No. 239 or Mascarene's Treaty 1728 Treaty of 1752 Royai Proclamation of 1763 Effects of the Missionaries in the Eighteenth Cenairy Mi'lanaq Society in the Nineteenth Century Grand Council Succession: the Death of a Grand Chief Grand Council Appeals for Help Reverend SiIas Rand Mi'krnaq Government Denied - The Creation of the Indian Act Chapter Four - Mi'kmaq Grand Council in the Twentieth Century 91 Grand Council Structure in the Twentieth Century 92 Wampum Belt Tradition Continued 94 The Roles of the Putus 95 Grand Chief John Demy, Ir. - Last of the Hereditary Grand Chiefs 97 Grand Chief Gabriel Sylliboy 100 Grand Chief Donald Marshall, Sr. 110 The Mi'lmiaq Grand Council and International Affairs - Roles of the Kji Keph'M Treaty Day - The Invention of a Tradition 118 Succession of the Grand Chieffainship in 1992- Present Day Grand Council Structure 124 Chapter Five - Present Day Mi'kmaq Collsffuctions of the Grand Counciï 131 History, Identity and hvented Traditions 13 1 Constmcting the Past - The History of the Grand Council Today 134 Present Day Roles and the Invention of Tradition 139 Present Roles of the Mi'kmaq Grand Council - The Mi'kmaq Perspectives 142 The Putus 147 Characteristics of Membership and Selection Processes 149 Identity Issues - Differing Definitions 151 Spiritual Tensions within the Grand Councii 154 Traditional Spirituality and the Grand Council 160 Political Tensions within the Grand Council 165 Geographic Tensions within the Grand Council and Mi'kmaq Society 173 Revitalking and Inventing the Traditional Governing Body of the Mi'kmawey Mawio'mi 175 Grand Council Roles According to Mi'kmaq Politicai Leaders 177 Grand Council and the Native Councii of Nova Scotia: Building Bridges 180 Grass Roots Perspectives of the Grand Council 186 Women and the Grand Council 188 Grand Council and the Mi'kmaq Warrior Society Chapter Six: Condusions Conclusions Appendix 1 Appendix II Appendix III References mu= Figure One: The Reverend Siias Rand and Two Mi'kmaq Boys Figure Two: Pum Andrew Aiex with Mi'krnaq Wampum Belt Figure Three: Father Pacifique Figure Four: lYji Sagamav Gabriel Sylliboy St. AM'S Day Figure Five: Kji Sugaamav in St. AM'S Day Procession Figure Six: Kji Saga~~wMarshall and Pope John Paul II Figure Seven: Grand Council Procession Treaty Day 1996 Figure Eight: Kji Sugumc~wBen Sylliboy Treaty Day 1996 Maps: Map One: Traditional Mi'lanaq Temtory Map Two: Nova Scotia Mi'kmaq Reserves vii The Mi 'kmawey Mawio 'mi or Mi'lanaq Grand Council is a spiritual and politicai body of the Mi'kmaq of the Atlantic provinces. It is an aboriginal construct governing the Mi'kmaq people and remains salient to Mi'kmaq culture and society today. This thesis explores the changing roles of the Grand Council histoncally from colonization to the implementation of the Indian Act. Today the Grand Councii is experiencing a resurgence in its importance to Mi'kmaq national identity and distinctiveness. As the Mi'kmaq move toward self-government, the nature of the Council is pivotal to understanding the construction of Mi'kmaq political, spiritual, and social identity. How the Mi'kmaq negotiate their public identity and presence is analysed through a theoreticai hework of identiv formation and invented tradition. The Council is a fluid and dynamic structure which is constantly enduring the pressures of authentication. The Grand Council is confkonted with new political and spiritual roles and responsibilities. It is in a transfomative process allowing for a diversity of interpretations of those roles as the Mi'kmaq people smve to create an identity best suited to their needs. viii UNS1 - Union of Nova Scotia Indians UN - United Nations NCNS - Native Council of Nova Scotia RG - Record Group JR - Jesuit Relations and AUied Documents published by Thwaites CO - Colonial Office Files Working with Dr. Virginia Miller has been a nemendous experience. Her enthusiasm and dedication to her craft are fortunately contagious. Dr. Miller is an exceptional role model, meticulous in every detail. She is a tme champion of the Mi'hq. 1 feel very privileged to have had her guidance as supervisor of this thesis. Thank you very much Dr. Miller for the great amount of time and energy you gave to my project . Professor Don Clairmont has aiso been an inspiration in his role as thesis committee member. His indepth knowledge of the Mi'lmiaq fiom socio-anthropological and personai viewpoints offered me new perspectives in analyshg cultural processes. His anecdotes were greatly appreciated for their levity and insight, thank you. 1 would like to thank Dr. Jerome Barkow for taking the time to be a committee member and a reader of this thesis, particularly when he would rather discuss eels. Thank you. 1 also thank Dr. Jennifer Jannan, Dr. Pauiine Gardiner-Barber, Dr. L. Dubois, Ms. Donna Edwards, and Ms. Mary Morash-Watts for their support and encouragement in my pursuit of the Master degree. This research was supported by the Nova Scotia Museum of Naturai History in the form of the Mi'kmaq History Research Grant, for which 1 am ûuly grateful. I am thankful for having the opportunity to work with the amazing Ruth Holmes Whitehead who is another champion of the Mi'kmaq. Thank you for giving me access to the special files and photos, and for enlivening the research process . Most importantly 1 have a long list of people nom Mi'kmaq communities in Nova Scotia to thank. Without the interest, support, and willingness to participate by the foilowing people, this thesis wouid have been impossible. Thank you very much for letting me into your homes and for sha~gyour special knowledge with me. Special thanks go to Kji Sagamaw Ben Sylliboy, Kji Keptin Alex Demy, Punis Charlie Hearney, Mrs. Caroline Marshall, Kep~Frank Nevin, Keptin Steven Michael, Keptin Melvin Paul, Keptin John Prosper, Keptin Alex Joe Michael, Professor Murdena Marshall, Professor Joe B. Marshall, Chief and President Dwight Dorey, Councillor Roy Gould, Chief Tenance Paul, Ms. Heidi Marshall, Ms. Rose Prosper, Mr . Walter Bernard, Mr. Charles Bernard, Jr., Mr. Steven Marshall, the entire family of the late Grand Chief Donald Marshall, Sr. and al1 those people who took an interest in what 1 was trying to do, including Bob Beal and the TARR centre. Welal'iek. 1 want to specialiy thank Donald Marshall, Jr. for his unending suppoa and encouragement. His generosity with his cultural ideas and personal comections have put me in a privileged position as an anthropologist and as a fnend. Thank you for the day to day endurance, the wonderfil meals, your strength, and for helping me meet with a11 the fascinating people who became part of this body of work. Without you, 1 could not have done it. Welalin. Finaiiy , thank you to my parents, to whom 1 dedicate this work. Introduction The Mi'kmaq Grand Council is the political and spiritual organization of the Mi'kmaq people of the Maritime provinces. Evidence suggests that the Grand Council is an aboriginal constnict, predating contact with European missionaries, traders, explorers, senlers, and the earliest fishers. Early seventeenth century sources hint at the power and importance of the Mi'kmaq Grand Council; however, its political power diminished in the eighteenth century as Europeans colonized Mi'kmaq temtory. The Grand Councii ail but disappeared fiom European view in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Although many sources mention or discuss briefly the Mi'lanaq Grand Council, there is no cohesive account of it. Despite European attempts at acculturation and assimilation, the Council has demonstrated resilience through the centuries and it remains a very important part of Mi'kmaq history, culture, and identity.