Journal of Intelligence Review Meta-Intelligence: Understanding, Control, and Interactivity between Creative, Analytical, Practical, and Wisdom-Based Approaches in Problem Solving Robert J. Sternberg 1,* , Vlad Glaveanu 2,3, Sareh Karami 4, James C. Kaufman 5 , Shane N. Phillipson 6 and David D. Preiss 7 1 Department of Human Development, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA 2 Department of Psychology and Counselling, Webster University Geneva, 1293 Bellevue, Switzerland; [email protected] 3 Centre for the Science of Learning and Technology, University of Bergen, 5007 Bergen, Norway 4 Educational Psychology Faculty, Mississippi State University, Starkville, MS 39762, USA; [email protected] 5 Neag School of Education, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269, USA; [email protected] 6 Faculty of Education, Peninsula Campus, Monash University, Frankston 3199, Australia; [email protected] 7 Escuela de Psicología, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Macul, Santiago 7820436, Chile; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected] Abstract: A deeper understanding of the processes leading to problem framing and behind finding solutions to problems should help explain variability in the quality of the solutions to those problems. Citation: Sternberg, Robert J., Vlad Using Sternberg’s WICS model as the conceptual basis of problem solving, this article discusses Glaveanu, Sareh Karami, James C. the relations between creative, analytical, practical, and wisdom-based approaches as bases for Kaufman, Shane N. Phillipson, and solutions to problems. We use a construct of meta-intelligence to encompass understanding, control, David D. Preiss. 2021. Meta- and coordination between these constructs. We propose that constraints can act at each of three Intelligence: Understanding, Control, levels—individual, contextual, and interactive. Individual constraints include the metacomponents and Interactivity between Creative, (executive processes) that underpin each of the four kinds of solutions. Contextual constraints direct Analytical, Practical, and Wisdom- which of the four approaches are preferred under what circumstances. Finally, interactive constraints Based Approaches in Problem Solving. Journal of Intelligence 9: 19. involve individual and contextual constraints directly impacting each other’s actions. The model https://doi.org/10.3390/ of meta-intelligence and its functioning helps to explain the variability in the ways that individuals jintelligence9020019 frame problems and, as a consequence, in the solutions that are found. The model of meta-intelligence also helps explain why some solutions to problems are so much more comprehensive, and often Received: 21 November 2020 better, than others. Accepted: 29 March 2021 Published: 2 April 2021 Keywords: analytical skills and attitudes; constraint; creative skills and attitudes; intellectual skills and attitudes; meta-intelligence; practical skills and attitudes; problem-solving; solutions; systems; Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral WICS; wisdom-based skills and attitudes with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affil- iations. 1. Introduction The world is beset with problems unlike those seen in the recent past. On one level, the COVID-19 pandemic has focused attention on world leaders and governments, and their Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. joint responsibility to manage the tensions between economic growth and the health of Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. people. On another level, business owners have needed to rethink their operational plans This article is an open access article to ensure that, at least in the short term, they remain financially viable. Finally, individuals distributed under the terms and seek to maintain balance in their lives to ensure that they remain physically, mentally, and conditions of the Creative Commons financially healthy. In solving important life problems, people need to think creatively to Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// generate solutions to problems different from those to which they are accustomed; think creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ analytically to understand the problems and evaluate their solutions; think practically to 4.0/). J. Intell. 2021, 9, 19. https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence9020019 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/jintelligence J. Intell. 2021, 9, 19 2 of 22 implement problem solutions and convince others of their value; and think wisely to ensure that their ideas benefit others beside themselves and their allies. Although defining and solving problems is a highly individualized cognitive process, the environmental context shapes not only the nature of problems but also how they are solved. For example, the COVID-19 pandemic has set contextual constraints on finding and keeping jobs, on going to school and college, and most generally, on socializing, that did not exist even a year ago. The purpose of this article is to discuss a concept of meta-intelligence as a way of understanding the relations of control and coordination among creative, analytical, prac- tical, and wisdom-based approaches to problem solving (Sternberg n.d.b). An approach involves a complex of intellectual skills and attitudes (see also Sternberg 2003) applied to one or more problems. Skills refer to how well someone does something. We view abilities as constellations of skills that tend, at the level of individual differences, to be posi- tively associated with each other. Both skills and abilities, are modifiable, to some extent, both intragenerationally (Ericsson and Pool 2017; Sternberg 1999) and intergenerationally (Flynn 1987). Attitudes refer to propensities to use the relevant skills. Someone could be good at something—for example, creative skills—but as a result of attitudes, choose not to use those skills, perhaps to avoid being ostracized for going against a group norm. Or someone could have an attitude to use certain skills but not be particularly proficient in the use of those skills—as when someone wants to be creative but has non-novel, or common ideas. We use Sternberg(2003, 2019a) WICS (wisdom-intelligence-creativity-synthesized) model to consider the interplay between creative, analytical, practical, and wisdom-based intellectual approaches to problem solving, and to suggest how these four approaches interact with each other and with the environmental context to enhance or diminish effective problem solving. In this model, creative skills and attitudes are used to generate novel, meaningful solutions to problems; analytical skills and attitudes to ascertain whether the ideas are good ones; practical skills and attitudes to apply the solutions and persuade others of their value; and wisdom-based skills and attitudes to ensure that the solutions help to achieve a common good, over the long as well as the short term. Problem-solvers choose one or more approaches to problem solving based on their skills and attitudes as these interact with the problem or problems at hand. The complex of processes of choosing one or more approaches, controlling them, and coordinating the various approaches is what we call meta-intelligence (a concept introduced in Sternberg n.d.b). The processes are not always applied consciously. Choices may be made, often without one’s knowing why (Wegner 2017; Wilson 2004). Consider the essential features of the four approaches. In each case, relevant attitudes influence how one uses one’s meta-intelligence to choose to utilize the relevant skills in problem solution: 1. Creative skills are used to generate novel, high-quality solutions to problems. 2. Analytical skills are used to ascertain whether solutions (one’s own and others’) are logically sound, internally consistent, and conceptually well-founded. They are overlapping with the rational-thinking skills studied by Stanovich(2010); Stanovich et al.(2018) and others. 3. Practical skills are used to ensure the solutions are workable, given the constraints of the real world; to implement the solutions; and to persuade others of the viability of the solutions. 4. Wisdom-based skills are used to ensure that the solutions help to achieve a common good, by balancing one’s own, others’, and larger interests, over the long as well as the short terms, through the infusion of positive ethical values (Sternberg 1998, 2003, 2019b, 2020a). In our model creative, analytical, practical, and wisdom-based intellectual approaches can—or, at least, should—work together through meta-intelligence. However, as we shall now see, these windows onto thought and problem solving sometimes come up with J. Intell. 2021, 9, 19 3 of 22 different courses of action. The approaches actively work, through meta-intelligence, to constrain each other, both positively and negatively. This view is rather different from that of both traditional views and some mod- ern views of the intellectual skills that comprise approaches to problem solving, as broadly defined. With regard to historical and contemporary psychometric views (see Kaufman et al. 2020), intellectual functioning generally has been defined more narrowly, mostly taking into consideration analytical abilities. Our view takes a systems approach (Sternberg 2020c), where different systems of cognitive functioning interact with each other to produce adaptive responses to the envi- ronment. Sternberg(2019a, 2020a) model differs from Gardner(2011) systems model in not envisioning separate intelligences or separate “anythings,” but rather, a system that is completely