N o t e s I n t r o d u c t i o n 1. “American Vessels Captured by the Corsairs of Algiers, in October 1793,” Diary or London’s Register 1, no. 119, New York (March 15, 1794) : 2; Richard B. Parker, Uncle Sam in Barbary: A Diplomatic History (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2004), 214–215; Brooke Hunter, “Wheat, War and the American Economy during the Age of Revolution,” The William and Mary Quarterly 62, no. 3 (2005): 505–506. 2 . J o h n F o s s , A Journal of Captivity and Suffering of John Foss, Several Years a Prisoner at Algiers , 2nd ed. (Newburyport, MA: Published According to an Act of Congress, n.d.), 60–61. Captured in 1814, the Dutch Captain Gerrit Metzon described a similar experience. Daniel Panzac, Barbary Corsairs: The End of a Legend, 1800–1820 , trans. by Victoria Hobson and compiled by John E. Hawkes (Boston, MA: Brill, 2005), 98–99. 3 . F o s s , Journal , Preface, 147–160. 4 . R o b e r t C . D a v i s , Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast, and Italy, 1500–1800 (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003), 23; Robert C. Davis, “Counting European Slaves on the Barbary Coast,” Past & Present no. 172 (2001): 87–124. 5. Martha Elena Rojas, “‘Insults Unpunished’: Barbary Captives, American Slaves, and the Negotiations of Liberty,” Early American Studies: An Interdisciplinary Journal 1, no. 1 (2003): 159–186; Frank Lambert, The Barbary Wars: American Independence in the Atlantic World (New York: Hill and Wang, 2005); Parker, Uncle Sam ; Lawrence A. Peskin, Captives and Countrymen: Barbary Slavery and the American Public, 1785–1816 (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2009); Glenn James Voelz, “Images of Enemy and Self in the Age of Jefferson: The Barbary Conflict in Popular Literary Depiction,” War and Society 28, no. 2 (2009): 21–47. 6 . Ellen G. Friedman, Spanish Captives in North Africa in the Early Modern Age (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1988); Gillian Weiss, “Imagining 164 Notes Europe through Barbary Captivity,” Taiwan Journal of East Asian Studies 4, no. 1 (2007): 49–67; Gillian Weiss, “Barbary Captivity and the French Idea of Freedom,” French Historical Studies 28, no. 2 (2005): 231–264; Gillian Weiss, Captives and Corsairs: France and Slavery in the Early Modern Mediterranean (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2011); N. I. Matar, Turks, Moors, and Englishmen in the Age of Discovery (New York: Columbia University Press, 1999); Linda Colley, Captives: Britain, Empire, and the World, 1600–1850 (New York: Random House, 2002). 7 . Stephen Clissold, The Barbary Slaves (London: Elek Books, 1977). Davis similarly conflates time periods in his work. Davis, Christian Slaves. For a cogent critique of Davis’ work, see Ehud R. Toledano, “European Slaves in the Ottoman Empire,” review of Christian Slaves , by Robert C. Davis, Journal of African History 47, no. 1 (March 2006): 140–142. 8 . Tal Shuval, “The Ottoman Algerian Elite and Its Ideology,” International Journal of Middle Eastern Studies 32 (2000): 323–344; Toledano, “European Slaves,” 140–142. 9 . Ehud Toledano, “The Concept of Slavery in Ottoman and Other Muslim Societies: Dichotomy or Continuum,” in Miura Toru and John Edwards Philips (eds.), Slave Elites in the Middle East and Africa: A Comparative Study (London: Kegan Paul International, 2000), 17, n. 20. 10 . Peter Kolchin discussed the utility of a broadly comparative approach as a way to uncover the particularities of a slave system and the historical con- ditions that created it. Peter Kolchin, “The Comparative Approach to the Study of Slavery: Problems and Perspectives,” delivered at a conference on “Les Dépendances Serviles” (Ecole des Hautes Etudes en Sciences Sociales, Paris, June 1996), 18–20; Peter Kolchin, “L’approche comparée de l’étude de l’esclavage, Problèmes et perspectives,” in Myriam Cottias, Alessandro Stella, and Bernard Vincent (eds.), Esclavage et dépendances serviles: histoire comparée (Paris: L’Harmattan, 2006), 284–301. 11 . Linda Colley, “Going Native, Telling Tales: Captivity, Collaborations, and Empire,” Past and Present 168, no. 1 (August 2000): 175–176. 1 2 . J o h n W . B l a s s i n g a m e , The Slave Community: Plantation Life in the Antebellum South , revised ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1979), 65. 13. Peter Kolchin, “Some Recent Works on Slavery Outside the United States: An American Perspective. A Review Article,” Comparative Studies in Society and History 28, no. 4 (October 1986): 777. 1 “This World Is Full of Vicissitudes” * James L. Cathcart, “Account of Captivity, 1785,” The Papers of James L. Cathcart, 1785–1817, Library of Congress, Manuscript Reading Room, Washington, DC, 8; James Leander Cathcart, The Captives (La Porte, IN: J. B. Newkirk, [1899]), 6. Notes 165 1. Martha Winter Routh, Journal, 1794, Historical Society of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA; Linda Colley, Captives: Britain, Empire, and the World, 1600–1850 (New York: Random House, 2002), 47–48; Filippo Pananti, Narrative of a Residence in Algiers (London: H. Colburn, 1818), 32. Corsairs captured fewer women, but they did allow females to be ransomed. Robert C. Davis, Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast, and Italy, 1500–1800 (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003), 36, 170. 2 . D a v i s , Christian Slaves, 5; Gillian Weiss, Captives and Corsairs: France and Slavery in the Early Modern Mediterranean (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2011), 2–5, 10, 12–13. 3 . For more on ransom slavery, see Weiss, Captives and Corsairs , 10–12; Géza Dávid and Pál Fodor (eds.), Ransom Slavery along the Ottoman Borders (Early Fifteenth-Early Eighteenth Centuries (Leiden: Brill, 2007); James F. Brooks, Captives and Cousins: Slavery, Kinship and Community in the Southwest Borderlands (Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 2001); Yvonne P. Hajda, “Slavery in the Greater Lower Columbia Region,” Ethnohistory 52, no. 3 (Summer 2005): 565–588; Magnus Ressel, “Conflicts between Early Modern European States about Rescuing Their Own Subjects from Barbary Captivity,” Scandinavian Journal of History 36, no. 1 (2011): 1–22. 4 . “Algerines Extract of a Letter from Civita Vechia, Feb. 15,” Herald of Freedom 4, no. 19 (May 18, 1790): 3; Daniel Panzac, Barbary Corsairs: The End of a Legend, 1800–1820 , trans. by Victoria Hobson and compiled by John E. Hawkes (Boston, MA: Brill, 2005), 75. 5 . Gonçal López Nadal, “Mediterranean Privateering between the Treaties of Utrecht and Paris, 1715–1856: First Reflections,” in David J. Starkey, E. S. Van Eyck Van Hselinga, and J. A. De Moor (eds.), Pirates and Privateers: New Perspectives on the War on Trade in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries (Exeter, UK: University of Exeter Press, 1997), 116; Ole Feldbaek, “Privateers, Piracy and Prosperity: Danish Shipping in War and Peace, 1750–1807,” in Starkey, Van Hselinga, and De Moor (eds.), Pirates and Privateers , 240; Davis, Christian Slaves , 9. 6 . J a m e s W i l s o n S t e v e n s , An Historical and Geographical Account of Algiers; Comprehending a Novel and Interesting Detail of Events Relative to the American Captives (Philadelphia, PA: Hogan and M’Elroy, 1797), 6. 7 . W e i s s , Captives and Corsairs, 8; Susan Rose, “Islam versus Christendom: The Naval Dimensions 1000–1600,” Journal of Military History 63, no. 3 (1999): 561, 578. 8 . C a t h c a r t , Captives , 6; Cathcart, “Account,” 8. 9 . C a t h c a r t , Captives , 6; Cathcart, “Account,” 8; Panzac, Barbary Corsairs , 39. 10. Gillian Weiss, “Barbary Captivity and the French Idea of Freedom,” French Historical Studies 28, no. 2 (2005): 233; Colley, Captives , 172; Linda Colley, “Going Native, Telling Tales: Captivity, Collaborations, and Empire,” Past & Present 168, no. 1 (2000): 45; Molly Greene, “Beyond the Northern Invasion: The Mediterranean in the Seventeenth Century,” Past & Present 174, no. 1 166 Notes (2002): 67; Panzac, Barbary Corsairs , 21, 23; N. I. Matar, “Introduction: England and Mediterranean Captivity,” in Daniel J. Vitkus (ed.), Piracy, Slavery, and Redemption: Barbary Captivity Narratives from Early Modern England (New York: Columbia University Press, 2000), 10; Richard B. Parker, Uncle Sam in Barbary: A Diplomatic History (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2004), 9. 1 1 . D a v i s , Christian Slaves , 23, xxviii. Other works on European privateering against Muslims include the following: Carla Rahn Phillips, “Navies and the Mediterranean,” in John B. Hattendorf (ed.), Naval Policy and Strategy in the Mediterranean: Past, Present, and Future (New York: Frank Cass, 2000) and Greene, “Beyond the Northern Invasion,” 52; Abdallah Laroui, A History of the Maghreb: An Interpretive Essay , trans. by Ralph Manheim (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1977), 244; Salvatore Bono, “Naval Exploits and Privateering,” in Victor Mallia-Milanese (ed.), Hospitaller Malta 1530–1798: Studies on Early Modern Malta and the Order of St. John of Jerusalem (Msida, Malta: Mireva Publications Ltd., 1993), 356; Robert Davis, “The Geography of Slaving in the Early Modern Mediterranean, 1500–1800,” Journal of Medieval and Early Modern Studies 37, no. 1 (Winter 2007): 61; N. I. Matar, “The Last Moors: Maghāriba in Early Eighteenth Century Britain,” Journal of Islamic Studies 14, no. 1 (2003): 37–58. 12 . Eyal Ginio, “Piracy and Redemption in the Aegean Sea during the First Half of the Eighteenth Century,” Turcica: Revue d’Etudes Turques 33 (2001): 136. See also Maurits H. van den Boogert, “Redress for Ottoman Victims of European Privateering: A Case against the Dutch in the Divan-i Hűmayun (1708–1715),” Turcica: Revue d’Etudes Turques 33 (2001): 91–118; Olivia Remi Constable, “Muslim Spain and Mediterranean Slavery: The Medieval Slave Trade as an Aspect of Muslim-Christian Relations,” in Scott L.