Imperialism, Colonialism and Structural Violence: An Example of the Resistance of Piapot and Big Bear to Reserve Settlement by Carla M. Kennedy A Thesis submitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies of The University of Manitoba in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of MASTER OF ARTS Department of Anthropology University of Manitoba Winnipeg Copyright © 2010 by Carla M. Kennedy Acknowledgments I acknowledge and thank the University of Manitoba, the Faculty of Graduate Studies, and the Department of Anthropology, for all their support and encouragement. I especially thank Dr. Kathleen Buddle Crowe for all her support, encouragement, and guidance. She was a mighty force that saw me through a period of my own resistance, who acted as a true role model, academically and otherwise. My committee members Dr. David Stymeist, and Dr. Peter Kulchyski provided constructive criticism to help in with broadening my academic knowledge. Their insights are appreciated. Thank you! I acknowledge the Federation of Saskatchewan Indian Nations and the sister institutions, First Nations University of Canada, Saskatchewan Indian Institute of Technologies, and Saskatchewan Indian Cultural Center who supported me through employment and lending me their resources to use for this study. Included in these acknowledgements are Dr. Wesley Heber and Professor Miriam McNab, who provided the extra contributions and strength to bring the matter into fruition. Many thanks to Sakimay First Nation who provided me with funding to complete this level of study. And finally I acknowledge all the friends of Bill W., who inspired me to find inner peace and get to the promises. Anne Popoff was a great friend who gave me all the unconditional support to come back and therefore aided greatly in having a life and getting this done. Special thanks to Lee Kozak for all his support and friendship. I want to mention all the healers, sister friends, brother friends, and of course my lawyer friend William J. Warren who provided much refreshment through his energy, knowledge, and wisdom. Mēkwēc to all my relations. i Dedication This thesis is dedicated to Piapot and Big Bear, their people of that time period and their descendants. It is also dedicated to my extended family of Ka-mino-takot and all her children, Kimiwinokwē, and my siblings, Isabelle Hanson, and Bernice, Sylvia, and Corey Perkins; my children, Tyson Perkins who always made sure I was alright, Jesse, Heather Perkins, and Jeremiah Sobala, whose spirits motivated me to get a life as a student; my grandchildren Wade, Justice and Faith, and A.J., who encouraged me to be spiritual, do something, and remain interested; and to my Cree relations, the Dieter people from Peepeekisis First Nation and the Kennedy and Cuthand people from Little Pine First Nation. ii Abstract During the 19th century, British imperialism and Canadian colonialism aspired to subdue, subjugate and assimilate the Plains Cree (cf. Tobias 1992:148). This particular brand of colonialism employed Indian policy – a form of structural violence—rather than military force. I argue that structural violence was both legitimized and supported by cultural violence. The distortion of history is a prime example of cultural violence. That Canada followed an honorable and just policy in its dealings with Plains Indians (cf. Tobias 1983:519) is the contemporary residue of a myth created during colonial times in political circles to justify the dispossession of Aboriginal lands and resources. In the 19th Century, Cree leaders, Piapot and Big Bear, who were perceived as threats to Canadian “progress,” were routinely publicly maligned. The “official” historical literature often uncritically reflected these prevalent ethnocentric views of the day. Critical historical theorists, however, have offered a number of opposing views. This thesis focuses attention on the literature which takes a more critical and culturally informed approach to Canadian nation- building. It places a discussion of structural constraints at the centre of an exploration of the strategies Plains leaders used to resist a variety of Indian policies including reserve settlement. iii Table of Contents Acknowledgements....................................................................………………………… i Dedication...................................................................................………………………... ii Abstract............................................................................................................................ iii Chapter I: Introduction ................................................................................................... 1 Scope, Aims and Method................................................................................................. 1 Theoretical Approaches................................................................................................... 2 Historical Background..................................................................................................... 8 Resistance ……………………………………………………………………………. 23 Chapter II: Literature ……………............................................................................... 24 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 24 Cree Narratives ............................................................................................................. 26 Captives Narrative ........................................................................................................ 41 Early Historical Accounts ………………………………………………………….… 43 Reconstructions ............................................................................................................. 45 Remarks On Literature .................................................................................................. 50 Chapter III: Indian Policy: Treaties and Reserves ..................................................... 55 Introduction………….................................................................................................... 55 Imperial Policy .............................................................................................................. 55 Trade Compacts – Selkirk Compact ............................................................................. 57 Indian Land Policy ........................................................................................................ 60 iv Cree Situation Before Treaty ……………...…………………………………………. 62 Treaties ………………………………………………………..………….…………... 67 Chapter IV: Piapot and Big Bear - Resistance ............................................................ 78 Introduction ...……….................................................................................................... 78 Resistance ..................................................................................................................... 78 Treaty Adhesion – Bison Hunting Ordinance …………………….……………..…… 82 Remarks on Adhesion ……………………………………...………………………… 86 Discussion on Resistance to Adhesion ……………………...……………………….. 88 Spirited Resistance - After Adhesion ………………………..………………………. 90 Big Bear's Resistance to Reserves ……………………………...……………………. 92 Unity Continues - The Duck Lake Council ……………………….…………………. 96 Incarceration …………………………………………………………………………. 99 Concluding Remarks …………………………………………………………………. 98 Chapter V: Conclusion ................................................................................................ 104 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 104 The Literature ………………………………………………………………………. 104 Colonialism - Indian Policy ………………………………………………………… 112 v Resistance …………………………………………………………………………... 114 Conclusion – Subjugation Continues ………………………………………………. 117 Literature Cited ……………………………...……………………………………… 118 vi Chapter I: Introduction Scope, Aims and Method This thesis will examine British and Canadian colonial attempts to subjugate and assimilate Plains First Nations using Indian policy throughout the 19th century. This particular brand of colonialism employed Indian policy – a form of structural violence rather than military force. I argue that structural violence was both legitimized and supported by cultural violence. The distortion of history is a prime example of cultural violence. That Canada followed an honorable and just policy in its dealings with Plains Indians (cf. Tobias 1983:519) is the contemporary residue of a myth created during colonial times in political circles to justify the dispossession of Aboriginal lands and resources. In the 19th Century, Cree leaders, Piapot and Big Bear, who were perceived as threats to Canadian “progress,” were routinely publicly maligned. The “official” historical literature often uncritically reflected these prevalent ethnocentric views of the day. In order to convey a sense of the ethnocentric attitudes typifying the era of the newcomers, I will examine the literature that represents the prevalent views of the Cree leaders, Piapot and Big Bear. I will use the example of the Plains Cree under Piapot's and Big Bear's leadership, to argue that structural violence had profound implications for the Plains Cree and their reserve settlement. In short, such generally accepted views of the time characterize cultural violence and these were employed to legitimize structural violence. Critical historical theorists, however, have offered a number of opposing views. This thesis focuses