THE TRANSFORMATION OF THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT IN AMASYA FROM THE LATE OTTOMAN EMPIRE TO THE EARLY TURKISH REPUBLIC A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF SOCIAL SCIENCES OF MIDDLE EAST TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY BY DUYGU KALKAN AÇIKKAPI IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN THE DEPARTMENT OF THE HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE OCTOBER 2019 Approval of the Graduate School of Social Sciences Prof. Dr. Yaşar Kondakçı Director I certify that this thesis satisfies all the requirements as a thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Prof. Dr. F. Cânâ Bilsel Head of Department This is to certify that we have read this thesis and that in our opinion it is fully adequate, in scope and quality, as a thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Prof. Dr. T. Elvan Altan Supervisor Examining Committee Members Prof. Dr. Belgin Turan Özkaya (METU, AH) Prof. Dr. T. Elvan Altan (METU, AH) Prof. Dr. F. Cânâ Bilsel (METU, ARCH) Prof. Dr. Neşe Gurallar (Gazi Uni., ARCH) Assist. Prof. Dr. Bilge İmamoğlu (TEDU, ARCH) I hereby declare that all information in this document has been obtained and presented in accordance with academic rules and ethical conduct. I also declare that, as required by these rules and conduct, I have fully cited and referenced all material and results that are not original to this work. Name, Last name : Duygu KALKAN AÇIKKAPI Signature : iii ABSTRACT THE TRANSFORMATION OF THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT IN AMASYA FROM THE LATE OTTOMAN EMPIRE TO THE EARLY TURKISH REPUBLIC Kalkan Açıkkapı, Duygu Ph.D. Program in History of Architecture Supervisor: Prof. Dr. T. Elvan Altan October 2019, 215 pages This study focuses on the transformation of the built environment in the northern Anatolian town of Amasya from the late period of the Ottoman Empire to the early period of the Turkish Republic. The aim is to evaluate the settlement history of Amasya as a city with distinctive geographical characteristics, by analyzing the transformation of its built environment in relation to the changing socio-cultural, economic and political contexts. The analysis starts by focusing on the essential urban nodes formed by public buildings and places in the city center and the neighborhoods as the newly emerged defining elements in the Ottoman and Republican urban contexts. Then, the focus is widened to understand the determining urban routes experienced along the waterfront as the main element of city form, in the landscapes of public use, and through the transportation network provided in the city during the chronological frame of the study. Examining the transformation of the built environment in Amasya via the urban nodes and routes of the city from the late Ottoman to the iv early Republican periods, the study analyses the changing layers of the city in order to evaluate what was preserved, re-used and lost in the process of change. Keywords: Amasya, Late Ottoman Architecture, Early Republican Architecture, Urban History v ÖZ AMASYA’DA YAPILI ÇEVRENİN GEÇ OSMANLI DÖNEMİNDEN ERKEN CUMHURİYET DÖNEMİNE DÖNÜŞÜMÜ Kalkan Açıkkapı, Duygu Doktora, Mimarlık Tarihi Programı Tez Yöneticisi: Prof. Dr. T. Elvan Altan Ekim 2019, 215 sayfa Bu çalışma, Osmanlı İmparatorluğu’nun geç döneminden Tükiye Cumhuriyeti’nin erken dönemine uzanan bir süreç içerisinde, Kuzey Anadolu’da yer alan Amasya kentinin yapılı çevresinin değişimine odaklanmaktadır. Yapılı çevrenin dönüşümü sosyo-kültürel, ekonomik ve politik bağlamlarına göre analiz edilerek, özgün coğrafi unsurlara sahip olan Amasya’nın yerleşim tarihinin değerlendirilmesi hedeflenmektedir. Öncelikle, Amasya'nın geç Osmanlı ve erken Cumhuriyet kentsel bağlamlarının yeni ortaya çıkan tanımlayıcı elemanları olarak, kent merkezinde ve mahallelerde yer alan kamu yapıları ve kamusal alanların şekillendirdiği kentsel düğüm noktaları analiz edilmiştir. Ardından, kent formunun ana unsuru olan ırmak kıyısı boyunca, kamusal açık alanlarda ve kentte oluşturulan yeni ulaşım ağında deneyimlenen kentsel rotaları anlamak üzere odak genişletilmiştir. Amasya’nın yapılı çevresinin geç Osmanlı döneminden erken Cumhuriyet dönemine geçirdiği dönüşümü kentsel düğüm noktaları ve rotalar üzerinden inceleyen çalışma, dönüşüm sürecinde korunan, yeniden kullanılan ve kaybedilenleri değerlendirmek üzere kentin değişen katmanlarını analiz etmektedir. vi Anahtar Kelimeler: Amasya, Geç Osmanlı Mimarlığı, Erken Cumhuriyet Mimarlığı, Kent Tarihi vii To the memory of Architect İsmail Hakkı Göztaş viii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my supervisor Prof. Dr. T. Elvan Altan for her endless support, precious guidance and invaluable help throughout this research. I will always be grateful for her valuable advice and contribution. I owe special thanks to my thesis committee members, Prof. Dr. Belgin Turan Özkaya and Prof. Dr. Neşe Gurallar who contributed to the study with their invaluable remarks and criticisms. I am very grateful to the jury members Prof. Dr. F. Cânâ Bilsel and Assist. Prof. Dr. Bilge İmamoğlu for their constructive criticism and suggestions. I would like to thank the following institutions and employees for providing necessary documents for this study: Turkish Presidency State Archives, İlbank Archives and General Directorate of Mapping in Ankara; German Archaeological Institute, SALT Research and Atatürk Library in İstanbul, Amasya Municipality, Amasya Museum and Foto Apaydın in Amasya. I would like to present my gratitude to dear Alin Pontioğlu and Ared Pontioğlu for sharing their valuable memories and knowledge. I would like to thank Leyla Etyemez Çıplak for sharing her valuable sources on Amasya. I would like to thank ÖYP Faculty Development Program and Amasya University, especially Assist. Prof. Dr. Lale Güremen and Assist. Prof. Dr. Okan Murat Dede, for their understanding and support. I would like to thank many of my dear friends for their endless motivation and joy through the writing process of this dissertation at Amasya University Faculty of Architecture. I would like to thank some of my dear friends. I am indebted to Betül Atasoy, İdil Ayral, Şehri Kartal and Ayşegül Sondaş for their friendship, support, ix encouragement and insightful help during this study. I would also like to express my appreciation to dear Aygün Kalınbayrak Ercan, Saliha Aslan and Özlem Fatma Yıldırım Taştı for their friendship and their valuable help. My dearest friends Güniz Gürer, Seçil Özcan, S. Deniz Coşkun Akdoğan and Seda Sokullu Kiriş were always there with their precious friendship with lots of laugh with unforgettable memories shared in these long graduate years. It is a pleasure to express my gratitude to my dear family, my lovely parents Hayrunnisa Kalkan and Bünyamin Kalkan, and to my dear sister Merve Kalkan. I want to thank them for their love and endless trust in me. Last but not least, many thanks to my beloved husband, Mustafa Alper Açıkkapı, for being always by my side during this long, hard journey. This thesis is dedicated to the memory of architect İsmail Hakkı Göztaş. I am indebted to him for his sharing of his archive and knowledge about the history of Amasya. x TABLE OF CONTENTS PLAGIARISM .........................................................................................................iii ABSTRACT .............................................................................................................iv ÖZ ........................................................................................................................... vi DEDICATION .........................................................................................................viii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .....................................................................................ix TABLE OF CONTENTS .........................................................................................xi LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES ........................................................................xiii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ..................................................................................xix CHAPTERS 1. INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................. 1 1.1. Aim and Scope ............................................................................................. 1 1.2. Literature Review and Methodology ........................................................... 6 1.3. Organization ............................................................................................... 16 2. AMASYA: A TOWN IN ANATOLIA ............................................................ 19 2.1 Geographical Characteristics ...................................................................... 19 2.2 Settlement History ....................................................................................... 33 3. THE LATE OTTOMAN AND EARLY REPUCLICAN BUILT ENVIRONMENT IN AMASYA ......................................................................... 49 3.1 Urban Nodes................................................................................................ 52 3.1.1 Shaping Neighborhoods: Demographic Changes .............................. 54 3.1.1.1 Public Buildings of Muslim and Immigrant Communities .... 61 3.1.1.2 Public Buildings of Non-Muslim and Missionary Communities .......................................................................... 74 3.1.1.3 Fires and a Gap in the Urban Fabric ....................................... 90 3.1.2 Defining the Center: Changes and Continuities in Governance ......... 99 3.1.2.1 Ottoman