The Hudson Review Volume LVI, Number 1 (Spring 2003). Copyright © 2003 by The Hudson Review, Inc. HAROLD FROMM The New Darwinism in the Humanities Part I: From Plato to Pinker It may not be too much to say that sociology and the other social sciences, as well as the humanities, are the last branches of biology waiting to be included in the Modern Synthesis. —Edward O. Wilson in 19751 But the intellectual climate is showing signs of change. Ideas about human nature, while still anathema to some academics and pundits, are beginning to get a hearing. Scientists, artists, scholars in the humanities, legal theorists, and thoughtful laypeople have expressed a thirst for the new insights about the mind that have been coming out of the biological and cognitive sciences. —Steven Pinker in 20022 latonic idealism—the view that Mind is more real than PBody—may have been an epochal contribution to the lifting of mankind a few notches above the savagery of the flesh, inspiring Christianity with the sense of a “higher” and less carnalized reality that led to the Cartesian establishment of Mind as autonomous and supreme. But after twenty-five hundred years of grand, self-flattering illusions about the “spirituality” and autonomy of man’s unconquerable mind, a case could be made for spirituality as another, more genteel, covert form of savagery and control, another sort of narcissistic power-ploy—which of course Nietzsche had already zeroed in on a century ago when he attacked it as (to coin a phrase) the guerilla warfare of the weak, “brought on by the violent severance from [man’s] animal past . his declaration of war against the old instincts that had hitherto been the foundation of his power, his joy, his awesome- 1 Although this remark first appeared in the original 1975 edition of Wilson's Sociobiology: The New Synthesis, I quote it here from the twenty-fifth anniversary edition of this work, published by Harvard University Press in 2000, where it appears on page 4. 2 THE BLANK SLATE: The Modern Denial of Human Nature, by Steven Pinker. Viking. $27.95. Page 134. THE HUDSON REVIEW ness. What bestialities of idea burst from him, the moment he is prevented ever so little from being a beast of action.”3 The dark side of “spiritual autonomy,” “free will,” and “the ghost in the machine” is not just a matter of Catholic priests revealing that they share the drives of other men or Jerry Falwell, as Jupiter Tonans, hurling hate-filled thunderbolts in the name of “God” at everybody he happens not to like. It’s more serious than all that. What if the self-confidence of the “mental,” its sense of its own transcendence, its belief that it comes from above rather than from below, turned out, as per Nietzsche, to be the greatest self- deception of all, exquisitely screwing up the psyches rather than barbarously maiming the bodies of those whom it tyrannizes (though it’s also done plenty of maiming)? One would want to know what, besides Plato, Descartes, church dogma, uncompro- mising utopian ideologies such as Marxism and Nazism, or today’s mandarin political correctness, could have authorized the hubris that underwrites such confidence in the autonomy of the mental, its disconnection from a materiality that keeps dragging it back down to earth anyhow? A humility-inducing lesson could be derived from a rapid review of the evolutionary calendar, which can hardly fail to astonish a generation for whom “classic” is apt to signify little more than the venerability of a soft drink. Although the time- scheme of this calendar is subject to frequent revision, a ballpark set of figures is good enough to drive home the point. So let us say that the Big Bang, the source of all our woe, “occurred,” if that’s the word for it, fifteen billion years ago and that life—a one-celled sort of nothing-very-much—didn’t appear until twelve billion years later. Mammals we probably wouldn’t even recognize didn’t emerge until about two hundred million years ago, and it was only a mere sixty-five million years ago, after the end of the dinosaurs, that reasonably familiar looking animals entered the scene. With primates fifty million years back and hominids only seven, we are noticing a definite speedup. Still, more than another six million years had to pass before Homo sapiens took over, say fifty to a hundred thousand years ago. The most shocking realization of all is that the hunter- gatherer phase of hominids lasted for millions of years until, only 3 Quoted passim from The Genealogy of Morals, trans. by Francis Golffing (New York, 1956). HAROLD FROMM ten thousand years ago, practically yesterday, the advent of farming introduced the settled communities we regard as civiliza- tion, which transformed human life in every conceivable way, setting off a rapid and conscious development of what today we call the arts and sciences. Intellectual free-play, that is, the use of the brain/mind for purposes other than immediate needs, is a by-product of Darwin- ian selection that results in phenomena like metaphysics and computer games, whereas evolutionary psychologists connect the human brain’s startling enlargement with the challenges of day- to-day survival. When bipedalism brought primates down from the trees, more intelligence was required to make tools for terrestrial living, to escape and outwit predators, and to hunt down other animals for food. Eventually, human brains became so large that surviving fetuses began to be born before they were fully viable, with heads having reached a size that overtaxed removal from the womb. Anyone who has watched the Discovery Channel or National Geographic on TV has seen the young of other species walking around twenty minutes after emerging from their mothers. Homo sapiens requires years. Although the amazing hominid brain took billions of years to evolve from the beginnings of life, human narcissism, both religious and secular, has tried to cut it loose, as Mind, from its material origins and treat it as a magical self-sustaining faculty with few predispositions. Somehow defying the parameters of all other kinds of existence, it is seen as a supposedly passive agency that can be molded like clay by churches, academies, and civil laws despite the only too obvious effects produced upon it not only by its evolutionary history but by food, air, water, drugs, toxic chemicals, fatigue, moods, disease, and age. As for the evolution- ary and genetic pressures on brain predispositions, the grandiose notion of “human freedom” has made that a subject almost taboo. It is increasingly the task of the “Modern Synthesis” (an amalgamation of Darwinian evolutionary science and post- Mendelian genetics), of evolutionary biology, evolutionary psy- chology, and now the new Darwinism in the humanities, to counter this dangerous and overweening trend of ascribing our longings, fantasies, and productions entirely to social imprints on a blank and somehow “free” slate instead of acknowledging their mortal and finite provenance in earth-generated flesh. Indeed, it THE HUDSON REVIEW is our very material limitations that enable us to be the creatures we are: without our perceptual constraints (to use a few examples that come to mind), movies would look like a series of still photographs, television screens and computer monitors would exhibit scannings and refreshings, not moving pictures, and the music on compact disks would suffer 44,000 audible interrup- tions per second between the digital samplings. Or as Alexander Pope put it, we’d die of a rose in aromatic pain. The publication of Steven Pinker’s The Blank Slate: The Modern Denial of Human Nature is a felicitous event affording a rich account of the foundations underlying the Darwinian interven- tions in the humanities to be discussed in the second part of this essay. Exhibiting all of Pinker’s characteristic virtues—a lucid, demotic, incisive prose, a wide-ranging intellect, a skillful appro- priation of popular culture, affability combined with straight talk, enormous learning allied with good sense—the book is destined to alter a discourse that has been held in check by political correctness and human vanity for much too long. Its founding idea, that the mind, an abstract term for the activities of a certain kind of brain—ours—is fully embedded in its matrix and not a free-floating independent entity (in fact, no “entity” at all), is hardly a new one. Even in the humanities, though scattered and fragmentary, treatments of this theme—such as Frederick Tur- ner’s Natural Classicism, with its vision of aesthetics as expressions of primordial biological preferences—have been around for some time. But the decisive event—for Pinker and everyone else sympathetic to his stance—was the appearance in 1992 of The Adapted Mind: Evolutionary Psychology and the Generation of Culture,4 a collection of essays by diverse hands, created by Jerome H. Barkow, Leda Cosmides, and John Tooby. What has become the locus classicus of the field is the book’s opening essay by Cosmides and Tooby: “The Psychological Foundations of Culture,” a systematic, counterrevolutionary manifesto that established the terms and issues of subsequent discourse in this arena. The orthodoxy that triggers revolt for Cosmides and Tooby can be represented by a remark by Emile Durkheim from 1895, a sentiment whose influence shaped the social sciences for almost a century: “Collective representations, emotions, and tendencies 4 The Adapted Mind: Evolutionary Psychology and the Generation of Culture, ed by Jerome H. Barkow, Leda Cosmides, and John Tooby (New York, 1992). HAROLD FROMM are caused not by certain states of the consciousness of individ- uals but by the conditions in which the social group, in its totality, is placed.