Mediterranean Archaeology and Archaeometry, Vol. 14, No 2, pp. 139-154 Copyright © 2014 MAA Printed in Greece. All rights reserved. JERUSALEM IN CLASSICAL AGES: A CRITICAL REVIEW Sultan Abdullah Ma'ani1, Abd alrzaq Al-Maani 2, Mohammed Al-Nasarat2 1Queen Rania Institute of Tourism and Heritage, Hashemite University, Jordan 2Department of History, Al-Hussein Bin Talal University, Ma’an, Jordan Received: 07/10/2013 Accepted: 06/12/2013 Corresponding author: [email protected] ABSTRACT This study is a review and in several cases it sheds light upon the history of Jerusalem City during the Roman and Byzantine epochs through focusing on a) the demography of the city, b) the names which had been mentioned in historical sources, c) ancient inscrip- tions and d) its urban design. The review goes through Jewish sources, particularly those which deal with the reign of the Roman leader, Pompey (Pompey the Great) and the Maccabees (Machabees); the reign of the Roman Emperor, Titus, during which the Jews were tortured; the reign of the Roman king of Jews, Herod (or Herod the Great); the reign of the Roman Emperor, Ha- drian; and the converting of the City from paganism to Christianity. KEYWORDS: Jerusalem, Roman epoch, Byzantine epoch, Hasmonean dynasty, historical sources, inscriptions. 140 MA'ANI et al 1. DEMOGRAPHY OF THE CITY The Jewish historian, Josephus, said that Herod built in the City a sports stadium and Jerusalem is a city fenced with valleys, a horse-racing hippodrome (Al-Fanny, 2007, situated above a mountains range in Central p.15). Palestine. This range extends between the Jerusalem, as the other big cities of Pales- Palestinian coast to the west and the Negev tine and Syria, uses the Latin language as an desert to both the east and south. Building official language in addition to the Aramaic Jerusalem city was initially begun from the language which was the language of trade, upper part of Kidron valley to its west side. market and daily life. Al-Dabbagh indicates Tyropoeon valley passes through the city that the City's population is a mixture of from the north to the south. Tyropoeon valley Arabs, Canaanites and Romans. However, has a historical background as it's known the popular costume in the city during the since Canaanites epoch. This valley had both Roman and Byzantine epochs was the been renowned for its gulches through Greek one. At that time, any one was tour- which fast streams are flowing from two ing Jerusalem, was feeling as if s/he was in mountains: Mount Scopus (or Jabal al- Rome. Furthermore, it's believed that the Masarif), Mount El-Tor (Jabal El-Zaytoon costume of that epoch was oriental upscale (Olive)). One of the most famous springs in one, particularly among the upper class and the city is Silwan which is sculptured by his- ruling class of Arab, Jews and Roman socie- torical inscriptions/reliefs. This spring had ties. A number of scientists and saints been also known by other names like: "Vir- emerged in Jerusalem. Josephus (37 – 100 gin Mary Spring" and "Um el-Darj". Because A.D.) was one of the most famous of them. of the city extensions and increase of urban- One of them, also, was Julius Sextus Afri- ization, Herod was forced to build tens of canus who set up the Roman Library in the wells in the courts of old Jerusalem and in reign of emperor Septimius who died in the area of Al-Aqsa Masjid for satisfying the Emmaus in 240 A.D. (Al-Dabbagh, 1965). needs for water as a result of scarcity of the In many of its stages, the Roman regime water. Over its eras, Jerusalem was always a in the Orient was characterized by granting city suffering from water scarcity, as its val- citizens freedom of property ownership, leys are not deep. Valleys of Jerusalem do freedom of language, freedom of customs not constitute natural shields which can and traditions, and freedom of religion. In protect the city, the matter which forced the addition, the Roman State, in both the first successive empires and kingdoms to fortify and second centuries A.D. did not overbur- the city by building walls/fences upon the den the citizens with taxes. Nevertheless, shoulders of hills or by building towers. Rome did not unleash the Religious Tolera- Herod, the Idumaean ruler, built three tow- tion. It did not allow that the religion may ers in the west corner of location of the for- be closely related to a nation's history and tress: The Hippicus Borj, The Phasael Borj, custom to the extent that it may lead to the The Mariamme Borj (Al-Fanny, 2007). rise or the inflammation of potential nation- The Herodeans changed major land- alist sentiments, which may, in turn, lead to marks in the topography of the city. Some of the ignition of revolutions. Moreover, Rome the hills were pulled down for the purposes was not allowing rituals which were incon- of setting up buildings within the ancient sistent with moralities or human feelings town, particularly in the territory of Al- (Worth, 2003) . Aqsa Masjid which has a large rocky area Consequently, in 70 A. D. Rome strived that can be architecturally used. Herod as- for eradicating the Jewish religion by setting sumed building the Roman Basilica from fire to and entirely destroying the Temple of the rock quarries, surrounded by a fence Jerusalem and also by a bloody repression called City Fence. He also built Tower of against the Jewish revolution which broke Antonia in addition to other defensive tow- out during the period between 132 and 135 ers and formations. A.D. (Worth, 2003, p.77). © University of the Aegean 2014, Mediterranean Archaeology & Archaeometry, 14, 2 (2014) 139-154 JERUSALEM IN CLASSICAL AGES: A CRITICAL REVIEW 141 Despite the devastation which struck the Georgians and Nestorians. Although mono- Temple in Jerusalem, half of the "Shekel" theism was predominant, there were some which had to be paid by every one of pious pockets of paganism which, however, did Jews to the treasury of the Temple, re- not last long. As a result of demographic mained payable, but, this time, to Jupiter, diversity, there was more than one common the Roman god (Worth, 2003,p.175). spoken language in the city. The dominant The Romans were not really caring about languages were both the Latin and Greek conditions of the Jews and administering languages. However, the majority of pil- their affairs. Therefore, the Jewish historian, grims and citizens were speaking one com- Tacitus, made a mistake when he talked mon language and the minority of them was about Judaism on the basis that anyone es- speaking both languages. That is why trans- tablished the Christianity was considered a lations spread and became one of the afflu- rebel who must be sentenced to death and ent livelihood sources (Schick, 2007,pp.176 – his followers were considered a sect who 179). their growth portended danger. In 120 A.D., recognition of or converting to Christianity 2. HISTORICAL NAMES OF JERUSALEM was considered a Capital Crime (Worth, 2003,176-177). The Arab geographers (Al-Hamawi, 1965; Ibn Abdulhaq, 1992) were not right to con- Jerusalem did convert to Christianity on- sider the name "Yerushalayim" a Hebrew ly in the reign of Constantine the Great (or Constantine I) who made the Roman State name, as they skipped centuries-time-gap convert from paganism to Christianity. As a preceding the existence of Hebrews. Abd result, the City gained a new character, as Allah Al-Hilo observed the different forms churches were built and became a place of for writing the name in different geogra- phers' books. Such name forms include: pilgrimage for Christians from all over the "Yerushalem", "Yerushalayim", "Urusalim", empire. Jewish aged women wearing shab- by clothes, howling and crying were seen "Ursalim", "Ursalimmu". (Al-Hilo, 1999, p. gathered around the churches. During the 88). Ursalimmu reign of Sassanians who ruled Jerusalem in For both the name forms and Ursalim/Urusalim, they were mentioned for 614 - 628 A.D., the Jews, after a long break in the first time in the Egyptian Execration residence in the City, came into existence Texts among foreign names of places related and had a supporting role. In the meantime, Jews came into conflicts with Christians in to the Middle Bronze Age, in reign of the th th Jerusalem (Schick, 2007, 169-179). Egyptian 12 dynasty in the 19 century 3wš3mm During the reign of Byzantines, some of B.C. This form was which was re- vised to become rwšlmm and read Urušali- influential senior Statesmen appeared in the mum. Therefore, such this latter form, social life of the City: Theodotus, in forties Urušalimum of the sixth century, 540 A.D.; Leontius, at , may be associated with the Urusalim the end of the sixth century A.D. and Em- word which remained the name press Eudocia in the period between 442 used over the last four centuries of the Ak- and 460 A.D. (Schick, 2007,p.173). kadian (or Acadian) epoch. In the Amarna letters – which were writ- In the reign of the Byzantine Emperor ten in the Acadian Language – the name Constantine I and his successors, there was u-ru-sa-lim diversity in the City's population that was form was mentioned, which was Urusalim estimated to be approximately 50,000 people generally similar to . This was at living in an area of 1000 Donum (or Dunam) the end of the reign of Pharaoh "Ikhnaton" in approximately 1360 B.C. This means that within the city walls. That diversity was due the name "Ursalim" or "Yerushalem" was to the visits of Jewish and Christian pilgrims known many centuries before the Biblical to this holy City.