Geographical Review of Japan Vol. 57 (Ser. B), No. 1, 1•`21, 1984 The Codes of Japanese Landscapes -An Attempt to Topological Geography -Ichiro SUIZU* In the articulations forming a landscape on various levels, we can recognize the relation ships of "material E morpheme c constituent," and "constituent •¼ part of a landscape." A "region" can be regarded as a unity of places where the articulations of landscapes serve as a ground and figure for actions to be physically performed, and where the loci of these performances are stratified to reform and reorganize the given articulations. Thus, we first notice that the existence of relations which are latent in a "region" corresponds to the structure of a language. Since ancient days, the Japanese have had the concept of "ma," a concept related to a space-time continuum. A versatile concept, it further connotes even relative relationships among objects in the space-time realm. In other words, various performances have been considered to manifest themselves in concrete forms in the realm of "ma." Accordingly, it is presumed that among the traditional codes (langue) which have determined performances (parole) based on the background of various articulations of landscapes consisting of morphemes peculiar to Japan, there are some codes which contribute to providing a unique structure for "ma." This paper aims at varifying the existence of these codes on the basis of the results of studies on the historical geography in Japan and at clarifying their characteristics from the viewpoint of comparative geography. Furthermore, this paper aims to elucidate the codes that have some aspects corresponding to the topological space beyond Euclidean space and to give a concrete explanation to the morphogenesis of landscapes in conformity with the theory of bifurcation in topology. In addition, the author intends to clarify part of the topological underlying structure of "regions" in general. Actions which are unfolded with a land mum units which are meaningful to human scape (Landschaftsbild) as a background, life. We call these the "morphemes" of a produce hidden multidimensional loci of landscape. For instance, a house, which is a performances. Since no corporal actions are constituent of a landscape, has such morphemes performed independently of a three-dimentional as floors, pillars, doors, a roof and eaves, as landscape, a close reciprocity exists between well as furniture and various tools. And a a space for these concrete performances and parcel of farmland, another constituent, has the structure of landscape (NAKAMURA,1982). morphemes including furrows, ridges and Therefore, no topological spatial theory on arable soil. Here, let us presume that these corporal actions can be established abstractly morphemes are corresponding to monemes in without regard to the analysis of a landscape linguistics. Just as each moneme is a unity or its constituents. It is suggestive that even of phonemes, so each morpheme is composed in the field of topology, which is supposed to of many varied materials such as wood, stone, have little relation with visual images, R. metal and soil. Taking the form of Fliese or THOM systematized dynamic theories of mor Okotop in nature, these materials are artificially phogenesis (THOM, 1977). extracted from nature and then processed into In disassembling a landscape into smaller morphemes. pieces, we find that they are reduced into mini Only when landscapes constituents as struc * Department of Geography , Kyoto University, Yoshida-hon-machi, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606, Japan. 2 I. Suizu tural units composed of morphemes are combin We can see the following corresponding ed into a small or large landscape or a part relationships among the units of a landscape, of it with articulations at different levels in psychology and language (See Table 1). accordance with specific codes, does a world Thus, preparations have been completed for meaningful to communal life manifest itself . systematically analysing the structure of a "region" as a unity of places for f As long as landscapes or their constituents unctions (space are constructed by individuals, they differ for performances), that is, a set of landscapes with individuals. However, as long as human with a group of functions integrated in it beings are social beings, the functions and (region X)1), with an analogy to language structures of landscapes, or their constituents (Suizu, 1982a). A landscape is a corporal belonging to each human group, must have a extension (MERLEAU-PONTY,1945). system common to them. These landscapes and their constituents can be compared to I. The codes of historical landscapes in Japan parole in linguistics, while the system corre sponds to langue (SAUSSURE,1916). The codes of landscapes are corresponding But, the establishment of a structure com to the grammar of langue, while each land parable to a phonological structure is far from scape is comparable to parole (Sulzu, 1980). easy in geography. A language itself has no In this thesis, I would first like to examine form and is composed of a one-dimensional the geographical langue by focusing on some chain parlee. Therefore, it may seem extreme examples of (1) landscape construction patterns ly different in nature from "regions" under recognized in sacred or non-daily structures lain by landscapes which are composed of such as Buddhist temples, Shinto shrines, and concrete shapes on a land surface. Never historic gardens and architecture, and of (2) theless, in order for a parole organized on a landscape representation patterns seen in chain parlee to actually fulfill the function of paintings and drawings. Then, I would like communication, there arises the necessity of to proceed to prove the existence of codes of a "place for communication" between the historical landscapes in Japan by verifying speaker and the listener, a place beyond a that these patterns have been also applied to one-dimensional realm. When various actions individual daily landscapes. This will be then are performed in one place, the place also followed by the clarification of corresponing serves as a "place for communication" which relationships between these codes and "mathe assists in performing the actions more smoothly matical reality." by the use of parole as a systematic whole of symbols. Therefore, "places for communi 1. Landscape construction patterns cation" may well be regarded as a "space (i) The pattern of marking off (kugiru) for performances" in a common phase between (ƒÒ00) •¿linking (tsunagu) (ƒÒ11) geography and language. A sacred realm and a secular realm: These Table 1. Corresponding relationships among the units of a landscape, psychology and language Codes of Japanese Landscapes 3 two realms are symbolically marked off by such morphemes as a torii (Shinto shrine archway) 2. Landscape representation patterns , gate, moat and bridge, shimenawa (sacred Black-and-white landscape paintings called Shinto straw festoon stuck with white paper sansuiga, bird's-eye-view paintings, pictures which has been cut into pieces) and kekkai of scenic spots on trips (dochu zu) , and paint (wooden fence erected in the main building ings of the inside and outside of Kyoto-all of a temple to show a boundary between the these traditional Japanese paintings share some clergy and laymen), which are too permeable landscape representation patterns such as the to be definite boundaries. There are transi incorporation of scenic spots, the movement tional spaces. of the focus and successive changes of scenes (ii) The patterns of dominating (shita (YAMORI, 1982). These representation patterns gaeru) (ƒÒ21), setting off (hikitateru) and are often in reverse perspective and bear re complementing (tsumaninaru) (ƒÒ23) (rock semblance to the above-mentioned landscape garden arrangement or huseki pattern) construction patterns. Especially , the patterns The arrangement of rocks in Japanese-style of "moving," "fusing," "abbreviating" and "linking" are domi gardens: With the layout of the Japanese nant. garden grasped in its totality, principal stones All these construction and representation (trump stones) are placed and then supple patterns were completed under the influence mentary stones are arranged among them. of the natural and cultural climate of Japan The "space" between the stones is not mere in and after the medieval ages in close relation empty space but it conveys a tense atmosphere with such factors as the qualities of construc characterized by the patterns of "dominating," tion materials typified by timber and bamboo "setting off" and "complementing , ." Here is and the distinct changes of the seasons as a way of placement due to circumstances. well as Buddhism and the principle of ten-chi (iii) The patterns of likening (mitateru) jin (a concept of aesthetic equilibrium marked (ƒÒ31), fusing (tokeau) (ƒÒ32) and incorporating by dissymmetry and dynamic equilibrium) (ikedoru) (ƒÒ33) which is incorporated not only into the arrange Gardens of the four seasons: The gardens ment of rock gardens but also into the sectors of the four seasons are those adapted to each of flower arrangement and tea ceremony. And season and laid out in miniature in scenic among these patterns, mutual infiltration is spots (shukkei) to induce man's immersion into recognized. and harmony with the landscape. The gardens ƒÒ00_??_ƒÒ11_??_ƒÒ21_??_ƒÒ31_??_ƒÒ41_??_ƒÒ51 were used to be likened to the Pure Land (Sukhavati) in Buddhism and so on. However, the discussion of aesthetics of (iv) The patterns of moving (ugoku) (ƒÒ41), these non-daily patterns is not the purpose of changing (utsurou) (ƒÒ42) and curving this paper. Aesthetics should be studied in (mageru) (ƒÒ43) the fields of architectural history or art history. Landscape gardens in the go-round style: As What is required in geography is to verify is indicated by the expression "the visualiza that even in urban areas and rural villages tion of movement," which is used to describe daily functions {ƒÒ} are apt to be combined ex these gardens, they are characterized by the clusively with specific groups of morphemes change in the viewpoint and successive changes instead of others in conformity with the above of scenes.