Breathing within and in front of images: Rhythm and time in abstract art Linn Burchert, Jena 1 Introduction The problem of time in images has been traditionally addressed in terms of narratology.1 In accordance with Gotthold Ephraim Les- sing’s normative distinction between the arts of time and the arts of space, the only acceptable and ideal way in academic painting to depict temporality has been the pregnant moment. The passage of time in art is attributed to the successive medium of the text while images and other visual media are said to be still in time. However, phenomena of time have to be addressed in an entirely different manner in pic- tures that do not depict persons and actions. The development of abstract or non-figurative art and the theories attached to it have helped to generate new concepts concerning temporality in images. Suggestions for an understanding of the temporal aspects in abstract art in the first half of the 20th century culminate in the principle of rhythmicity. However, rhythmicity has not just been attributed to the composition itself, but has become central to ideas about the pro- duction and reception of art as well. Thus, issues of temporality in the visual arts can be extended to a number of different dimensions. In the context of the Lebensreform movement and body culture in the beginning of the 20th century, the production and reception of artworks acquired new relevance, a subject of this time period that remains underexplored. 1 See Wickhoff’s distinction between the continuous, isolating, and complementary modes of narration in images: Franz Wickhoff, Die Wiener Genesis, Wien 1893, pp. III–13. www.visualpast.de 60 Visual Past 2017 In the course of my current dissertation project2 I came across a neglected metaphor and practice binding together the three or even four dimensions of the (pre-)production, composition, and reception of images: the metaphor of breathing in front of and within images, as well as the well-known metaphor of the image as a living organism. Breath as a rhythmic movement of contraction and expansion ap- pears to be a central model in modern art practice and theory, em- phasising the importance of rhythmicity on different levels. As this article represents one aspect of my ongoing dissertation, here I want to provide a first overview and some approaches regarding this fruit- ful metaphor. After introducing the concepts of rhythm in abstract art and modernity in general, I continue with Wassily Kandinsky’s concept of the image as a vibrant space filled with air, and with Jo- hannes Itten’s thoughts on breathing in the processes of the image’s (pre-)production and reception. I then describe Paul Klee’s concepts of pre-creation, creation, and re-creation in the context of biorhyth- mic phenomena. The last artist is František Kupka, who theorized about the image’s mediality and emphasised the importance of breathing exercises. 2 Rhythm in abstraction and modernity Rhythm as a ‘time dividing’ phenomenon (Erwin Panofsky)3 plays a central role in art theoretical conceptions of the first half of the 20th century, for instance in those of Paul Klee and Wassily Kandinsky. As Janice Joan Schall states in her 1989 dissertation Rhythm and Art in Germany, 1900–1930, all definitions agree on “repetition, interval, and stress” as the central characteristics of rhythm.4 In his 1919 pub- lication Die Lehre vom Rhythmus in der heutigen Ästhetik der bildenden Kün- ste art historian Willi Drost focuses on aesthetic theories on rhythm from the early 20th century. He notes that concepts relating to rhythm in modernity are not only applied to dance, music and poetry but also 2 Working title: “Das Bild als Lebensraum. Ökologische Wirkungskonzepte in der abstrak- ten Moderne 1910–1960”. 3 See Overmeyer 1982, 33. 4 Schall 1989, 3. Burchert, Breathing within and in front of images 61 to the “starrsten, totesten Gebilde” (most rigid, most dead forms).5 In this book, Drost focuses on architectural theory, whose modern theore- tists in modernity, such as August Schmarsow, considered rhythm no longer as something “Simultanes, Gewordenes” (simultaneous, com- pleted) but as something “Werdendes, das im Nacheinander erlebt werden soll, das vom Sein zum Entstehen zurückgeführt und vom Subjekt Stück für Stück nachgeschaffen wird” (evolving that is to be ex- perienced successively and turned from something existent into something becom- ing, which is reproduced piece by piece by the subject through reception).6 These ideas, according to Drost, have been the basis for an understanding of visual arts such as painting and reliefs as rhythmic arts without narration or content in the traditional sense; further, lines, colours, shadows, and lights released from content could be seen as having an “eigenes rhythmisches Leben” (individual rhythmic life)7 governed by temporal structures. While definitions of rhythm vary widely, there are common ele- ments. In the most general sense, rhythm is thought of as a temporal sequence of changing elements – up and down, rise and fall, expan- sion and contraction, darkness and light, accented and unaccented. Different ideas, however, exist regarding the transition between these different elements. While writers in the modern era often concep- tualized rhythm as distinct from measure and metre, especially in the tradition of Ludwig Klages, there are other approaches. For example, art historian Alois Riegl understands rhythm as a “geschlossene Aneinanderreihung gleichgeformter Raumabschnitte” (closed unity of uniform sections) and a “reihenweise Wiederholung gleicher Elemente” (successive repetition of the same elements).8 This definition is commonly used in order to describe the musical metre. The understanding of rhythm as a streaming movement is probably based on an etymology tracing back the term to the Greek word rhein (‘flow’).9 The most 5 Drost 1919, 5. Author translation. Throughout this paper, the author’s translations from German to English appear parenthetically in italics following the original quotations. 6 Drost 1919, 5 f. 7 Drost 1919, 6. 8 Drost 1919, 9. 9 Primavesi – Mahrenholz 2005, 10. 62 Visual Past 2017 common etymology is the Greek rhythmós, which stresses rhythm’s regularity and proper proportions.10 According to Klages, the metronomic beat is characterized by the repetition of the same elements; rhythm, in contrast, indicates the re- currence of the similar, not the identical. Klages concludes that “der Takt wiederholt, der Rhythmus erneuert” (the metronomic beat repeats, rhythm renews).11 Klages describes the structure of rhythm as a wave movement without clear boundaries, with the transition between moving up and down occurring in the “Abwesenheit von bre- chenden Kanten” (absence of breaking edges).12 Rhythm is thus under- stood as a fluent movement while the measure’s structure consists of the constant repetition of the tick-tock-tick-tock-tick-tock without fluid transitions. The intervals between the rhythmic elements are not the same but similar, while the metronomic beat follows a mathe- matical, predictable logic. While rhythm lacks clear beginnings and endings in the transition between its elements and is potentially eter- nal, metre has clear-cut beginnings and endings, and is dividable.13 Klages describes rhythmicity with a number of examples: dark- ness and brightness, ebb and flow, the moon phases and the seasons, the human pulse and breath, the menstrual cycle, and times of enthu- siasm and contemplation.14 Through these examples, Klages not only brings in nature’s great cycles, but also the corresponding phenom- ena in the human body. Moreover, as Schall explains, Klages further defined “[s]ound, light, heat, and electricity” as rhythmic, indicating that rhythm “governs all organic life”.15 Klages understands rhythm as an unconscious principle that is opposed to the mind. Along with other influential thinkers of German body culture, such as dance art- ist Rudolf von Laban and dance critic Hans Brandenburg, Klages did not think of rhythm as a mental and volitional principle but as an 10 Seidel 2003, 292. 11 Klages 1934, 32. 12 Klages 1934, 17 f. 13 Klages 1934, 18. 14 Klages 1934, 33 f. 15 Schall 1989, 24. Burchert, Breathing within and in front of images 63 irrational and bodily phenomenon. As Helmut Günther points out, these thinkers did not want to train rhythm but to sink into it.16 For all these theorists, rhythm is regarded as a phenomenon that has a huge influence on the individual. Klages was part of a group of thinkers who were concerned not only with rhythm, but also with the body and related reform move- ments. These individuals were, in turn, important to avant-garde art- ists in the first half of the 20th century. Klages was part of the Munich circle around poet Stefan George, which had a great influence on a number of artists such as Kandinsky, Klee, and Johannes Itten. Many abstract modern artists not only understood the image itself to be rhythmic and temporal but extended rhythmic principles to di- mensions of the production and reception of images. According to those ideas, the image is only truly realized by the recipient’s creative view, and the individual elements of the image are only joined to- gether as a whole through extensive reception.17 The idea that the image’s rhythms are received and internalized by the viewer is also found in the empathy theory of Theodor Lipps, which strongly in- formed artists’ theoretical ideas about abstract art. Schall draws on this theory to explain the image’s potential “to link artist, artwork, and viewer in a direct line of communication” through rhythm.18 Lipps described rhythm as “a psychic experience” which, as Schall summarizes, is joyous, and “stimulates our imitative instinct and evokes a kinaesthetic response in us”. Quoting Lipps, she continues that empathy is “nothing more than the interior aspect of imita- tion”.19 As Robin Curtis puts it, the concept of empathy describes a kind of “involuntäre[], instinctive[] Mimikry an das Andere” (involuntary 16 Günther 1990, 29.