Cenozoic Sediment Dispersal Patterns Across Trinidad, West Indies by Hasley Vincent Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at Dalhousie University Halifax, Nova Scotia July 2008 © Copyright by Hasley Vincent, 2008 Library and Bibliotheque et 1*1 Archives Canada Archives Canada Published Heritage Direction du Branch Patrimoine de I'edition 395 Wellington Street 395, rue Wellington Ottawa ON K1A0N4 Ottawa ON K1A0N4 Canada Canada Your file Votre reference ISBN: 978-0-494-43965-4 Our file Notre reference ISBN: 978-0-494-43965-4 NOTICE: AVIS: The author has granted a non­ L'auteur a accorde une licence non exclusive exclusive license allowing Library permettant a la Bibliotheque et Archives and Archives Canada to reproduce, Canada de reproduire, publier, archiver, publish, archive, preserve, conserve, sauvegarder, conserver, transmettre au public communicate to the public by par telecommunication ou par Plntemet, prefer, telecommunication or on the Internet, distribuer et vendre des theses partout dans loan, distribute and sell theses le monde, a des fins commerciales ou autres, worldwide, for commercial or non­ sur support microforme, papier, electronique commercial purposes, in microform, et/ou autres formats. paper, electronic and/or any other formats. The author retains copyright L'auteur conserve la propriete du droit d'auteur ownership and moral rights in et des droits moraux qui protege cette these. this thesis. Neither the thesis Ni la these ni des extraits substantiels de nor substantial extracts from it celle-ci ne doivent etre imprimes ou autrement may be printed or otherwise reproduits sans son autorisation. reproduced without the author's permission. In compliance with the Canadian Conformement a la loi canadienne Privacy Act some supporting sur la protection de la vie privee, forms may have been removed quelques formulaires secondaires from this thesis. ont ete enleves de cette these. While these forms may be included Bien que ces formulaires in the document page count, aient inclus dans la pagination, their removal does not represent il n'y aura aucun contenu manquant. any loss of content from the thesis. Canada DALHOUSIE UNIVERSITY To comply with the Canadian Privacy Act the National Library of Canada has requested that the following pages be removed from this copy of the thesis: Preliminary Pages Examiners Signature Page (pii) Dalhousie Library Copyright Agreement (piii) Appendices Copyright Releases (if applicable) To Wendy and Sidney IV Table of Contents LIST OF FIGURES xiv LIST OF TABLES xx ABSTRACT xxii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS xxiii CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 OVERVIEW 1 1.1.1 Nature of Research 2 1.1.2 Organization of Thesis 2 1.2 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES 4 1.3 REGIONAL SETTING 5 1.3.1 Location 5 1.3.2 Stratigraphy 8 1.3.2.1 Stratigraphic column 8 1.3.2.2 Overview of formations 8 1.3.2.3 Historical development of the Trinidad stratigraphic table 9 1.3.2.4 Modifications to Bolli's original scheme 16 1.3.2.5 Facies control onplanktonic foraminifera 16 1.3.2.6 Formations in the Trinidad Stratigraphic table 17 1.3.3 Regional Structure 19 1.3.3.1 Caribbean Plate evolution 20 1.4 OUTLINE OF METHODS 23 1.4.1 Sedimentological principles 25 1.4.1.1 Historical Development of Sedimentology 26 1.4.1.2 Basic Principles in Sedimentology 27 1.4.1.3 The Behavior of Transporting Fluids 27 1.4.1.4 Sediment entrainment 28 1.4.1.5 Sediment support mechanisms and grain settling 30 1.4.1.6 Sedimentary Structures and Flow Regimes 31 1.4.1.7 Definition of terms 33 1.4.2 Deep-Water Sediment Gravity Flows 35 v 1.4.2.1 Grain support mechanisms in sediment gravity flows 38 1.4.2.2 Depositional products of sediment gravity flows 40 1.4.3 Facies Associations in deep-water clastic environments 41 CHAPTER 2 - LITHOFACIES ASSOCIATIONS AND SEDIMENTARY PROCESSES OF PALEOCENE TO EARLY MIOCENE FORMATIONS 48 2.1 INTRODUCTION 48 2.2 CHAUDIERE AND POINTE A PIERRE FORMATIONS 49 2.2.1 Overview of the Chaudiere formation 49 2.2.2 Overview of the Pointe-a-Pierre formation 50 2.2.3 Facies of the Chaudiere Formation 52 2.2.3.1 Amalgamated pebbly sandstone (APS) 55 2.2.4 Facies of the Pointe-a-Pierre Formation 59 2.2.4.1 Tabular sandstone (TS) 59 2.2.4.2 Massive thick-bedded sandstone (MTBS) 60 2.2.4.3 Discordant sandstone and shale (DSS) 65 2.2.4.4 Lenticular sandstone (LS) 68 2.2.5 Facies Succession in the Pointe-a-Pierre and Chaudiere Formations 69 2.2.6 Palaeocurrents from the Pointe-a-Pierre Formation 71 2.2.7 Interpreted sedimentary processes 72 2.2.8 An alternative to hummocky cross-stratification 74 2.3 SAN FERNANDO FORMATION 76 2.3.1 Outcrop Distribution 77 2.3.2 Members of San Fernando Formation 78 2.3.2.1 Mount Moriah Sandstone Member (MMGSM) 79 2.3.2.2 Mount Moriah Calcareous Silt Member 81 2.3.2.3 Vistabella Limestone Member 83 2.3.3 Conglomerates of the San Fernando Formation 84 2.3.3.1 Plaisance and Marabella Conglomerates 85 2.3.4 San Fernando Formation at Soldado Rock 88 2.3.4.1 Sedimentary Processes at Soldado rock 94 2.3.5 Summary of facies in the san fernando formation 96 2.4 ANGOSTURA SANDSTONE MEMBER (CIPERO FORMATION) 98 2.4.1 Overview of the Angostura Sandstone 99 vi 2.4.2 Fades of the Angostura Sandstone 102 2.4.2.1 Bioturbated sandstone and siltstone facies assemblage 102 2.4.2.2 Massive thick-bedded sandstone (MTBS) ....110 2.4.2.3 Graded thick-bedded sandstone and conglomerates (GTBS) Ill 2.4.2.4 Cobble conglomerate (CC) 113 2.4.2.5 Organic debris 115 2.4.3 Petrophysical Log Facies and Facies Succession 117 2.5 NARIVA FORMATION 117 2.5.1 Overview of the Nariva Formation 117 2.5.2 Facies of the Nariva Formation (from outcrop) 121 2.5.2.1 Amalgamated pebbly sandstone (APS) 122 2.5.2.2 Massive thick-bedded sandstone (MTBS) 122 2.5.2.3 Parallel-laminated sandstone 127 2.5.2.4 Tabular sandstone (TS) 130 2.5.3 facies of the Nariva Formation (from Subsurface Core) 131 2.5.4 Petrophysical log facies 132 2.5.5 Facies Succession 134 2.6 MIDDLE CIPERO FORMATION (PLUM MITAN) 136 2.6.1 Lithofacies of the Middle Cipero Formation (Plum Mitan) 136 2.6.1.1 Symmetrical rippled sandstone 136 2.6.2 Palaeoenvironmental significance of the Plum Mitan outcrop 138 2.7 HERRERA SANDSTONE MEMBER 138 2.7.1 Lithofacies of the Herrera sandstone 141 2.7.1.1 Rippled sandstone and shale (RSS) 141 2.7.1.2 Rippled and graded sandstone (RGS) 142 2.7.1.3 Graded thick-bedded sandstone (GTBS) 145 2.7.2 Petrophysical log facies 148 2.7.3 Facies Succession 149 2.8 PALEOCENE TO EARLY MIOCENE FACIES SUMMARY 149 CHAPTER 3 - PALEOCENE TO EARLY MIOCENE DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENTS 152 3.1 PALAEOENVIRONMENTAL INTERPRETATION FROM BENTHICFORAMINIFERA.... 153 3.2 SUMMARY OF FACIES ASSOCIATIONS 154 vn 3.3 DEPOSITIONAL ELEMENTS 159 3.3.1 Canyons and other large-scale erosional features 159 3.3.2 Channels 161 3.3.3 Lobes 163 3.3.4 Channel-lobe transitions 163 3.3.5 Overbank wedges or levees 163 3.3.6 Slope facies 164 3.4 FACIES SUCCESSION AND DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENTS 165 3.4.1 Fining-upward succession of the Chaudiere and Pointe-a-Pierre formations 165 3.4.2 Chaotic facies association of the San Fernando Formation 172 3.4.3 Aggradational succession of the Angostura Sandstone 174 3.4.4 Fining-upward succession of the Nariva formation 177 3.4.5 Coarsening and thickening upward succession of the Herrera Sandstone 180 3.4.6 Cipero Formation (Plum Mitan locality) 182 3.5 SUMMARY 183 CHAPTER 4 - LITHOFACIES ASSOCIATIONS AND DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENTS OF LATE MIOCENE AND PLIOCENE FORMATIONS 185 4.1 CRUSE FORMATION 186 4.1.1 Facies of the Cruse Formation at Morne Diablo 189 4.1.1.1 Discordant sandstone and shale facies 189 4.1.1.2 Massive thick-bedded sandstone facies 192 4.1.2 Lithofacies along the eastern Morne Diablo coastline 193 4.1.3 Synopsis of sedimentary processes at Morne Diablo 194 4.1.4 Depositional Environment of the Cruse Formation along the Morne Diablo coast 195 4.2 LITHOFACIES OF THE MORNE L'ENFER FORMATION (LATE PLIOCENE) 197 4.2.1 Overview of the Morne L'Enfer Formation 198 4.2.2 Facies of the Morne L'Enfer formation 201 4.2.2.1 Laminated Silts (LS) 201 4.2.2.2 Thickening-Upward Flaser-Wavy Sands (TUFW) 202 4.2.2.3 Grey, Bioturbated Silts (GBS) 208 4.2.2.4 Swaley Cross-Stratified Sands (SCSS) 209 viii 4.2.2.5 Trough Cross-Stratified Sand (TCSS) 212 4.2.2.6 Amalgamated Sigmoidal Cross-stratified Sands (ASCS) 215 4.2.2.1 Laterally Accreted Sands (LAS) 216 4.2.2.2 Transitional Silts and Shale (TSS) 219 4.2.3 Lithofacies Succession and Sedimentary Processes in the Morne L'Enfer Formation: Summary 220 4.2.3.1 Palaeocurrent orientation in the Morne L' Enfer Formation 221 4.3 SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY OF THE MORNE L'ENFER FORMATION 224 4.3.1 Recognition of flooding surfaces and parasequences 224 4.3.2 Recognition of unconformities 226 4.3.3 Sequences and Systems Tracts 226 4.4 SUMMARY OF LATE MIOCENE TO PLIOCENE SEDIMENTARY PROCESSES 227 CHAPTER 5 - ICHNOFACIES ANALYSIS APPLIED TO THE TRINIDADIAN STRATIGRAPHY 230 5.1 ICHNOLOGY, ICHNOFACIES AND SEDIMENTOLOGY 230 5.1.1 Evolution of the Ichnofacies Concept 231 5.1.2 Application of ichnology and the ichnofacies concepts 234 5.1.3 Shortcomings of the Ichnofacies concept 235 5.1.4 Ichnofacies and deepwater depositional environments 236 5.2 ICHNOFACIES APPLIED TO THE TRINIDAD STRATIGRAPHY 240 5.3 TRACE FOSSILS OF THE PIERRE POINT SANDSTONE MEMBER (POINTE-A-PIERRE FORMATION) 242 5.3.1 Description of trace fossils 244 5.3.2 Summary of trace fossil assemblages for the Pierre Point Sandstone Member 254 5.3.3 Ichnofacies of the Pierre Point Sandstone Member 256 5.4 TRACE FOSSILS OF THE ANGOSTURA