UNITED STATES ALIEN TORTS CLAIMS ACT (ATCA), OIL CORPORATIONS AND MILITARIZED COMMERCE IN NIGERIA’S NIGER DELTA BY TARABINAH, WILFRED McBARRY PG/Ph.D/06/40623 A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (Ph.D) IN POLITICAL SCIENCE (INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS) DEPARTMENT OF POLITICAL SCIENCE, UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA. SUPERVISOR: DR. KEN IFESINACHI DECEMBER, 2010. i CERTIFICATION PAGE This Thesis Has Been Approved For the Department of Political Science, University of Nigeria, Nsukka BY _______________ ______________________ DR. KEN IFESINACHI PROF. OBASI IGWE SUPERVISOR HEAD OF DEPARTMENT ___________________ ____________________ PROF E. O. EZEANI PROF. BAYO OKUNADE DEAN OF FACULTY EXTERNAL EXAMINER ii DEDICATION MR and MRS M.S.K. TARABINAH And my Brother MR. VICTOR M. TARABINAH iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First and foremost I express my profound gratitude to the hearer of prayers, Jehovah God, for granting me the ability to successfully complete this program. To my kind hearted, hard working and indefatigable supervisor, Dr. Ken Ifesinachi. The guidance, encouragement and the swift attention he gave to this work facilitated the completion of this study. My heartfelt appreciation go to Fidelis Okoro, in the Department of English and Literary Studies, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, for his physical and moral support during the course of my program. Special thanks are due to Professor Obasi Igwe, Professor Emmanuel Ezeani, Professor Jonah Onuoha, Dr. A. M. Okolie, and others for their scholarly and insightful contribution to my doctoral seminars which has enhanced my research skill. To my numerous friends and colleagues that are not mention here due to want of space and my family members who have made life more meaningful to me. I hold you all dearly and remain ever yours. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Title page -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- i Certification Page -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- ii Dedication -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- iii Acknowledgement -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- iv Table of Contents -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- v List of Tables -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- vii List of Figures -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- ix Abstract -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- x CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background to the Study … … … … … … … …1 1.2 Statement of Problem … … … … … … … … …7 1.3 Objective of Study … … … … … … … … …11 1.4 Significance of Study … … … … … … … … …12 1.5 Literature Review … … … … … … … … …14 1.6 Theoretical Framework … … … … … … …44 1.7 Hypotheses … … … … … … … … … …52 1.8 Research Methodology … … … … … … ... …53 CHAPTER TWO International Regulatory Mechanism and Oil Corporations in Ogoniland of Nigeria’s Niger Delta …………… ……………………………………………………………………. 61 2.1 Origin and Impact of Petroleum Hydrocarbon … … … … …. 61 2.2 Oil Exploration in Nigeria …… …… ……. …..… …. …. …. 67 2.3 Optional Jurisdiction and NGOs in the International System ….. …… ……… 77 2.4 Advocacy and Litigation … …….. … … … …. 95 CHAPTER THREE The State and the Enforcement of the Liability of Oil Corporations for Violations of International Law in the Niger Delta … …. … ….. …. … 102 3.1 Nigeria / U.S Trade and Investment Relations … … … … 102 v 3.2 Nigeria and U.S. Military Aid … … … .. 115 3.3 Capacity of the Nigerian government to mediate oil conflict and enforce international Law … …. …. …. …. …. … … … … 131 CHAPTER FOUR Alien Torts Claims Act and Ogoni Struggle in the Niger Delta … … … 167 4.1 Cultural Composition of Ogoniland … … … …. …. … 167 4.2 Impact of Oil Exploration in Ogoniland … … … …. … …. 168 4.3 Alien Torts Claims Act and Compensation in Ogoniland … …. …. …. 176 4.4 Genocide … … … … … … … …. … … … 183 4.5 Crime against Humanity … … … … … … … … … … 186 4.6 War Crimes … … … … … … …. …. … … … 188 4.7 Arbitrary Detention … … … … … … … … … 193 4.8 Torture, Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment … … … … … … 194 4.9 Extra Judicial Execution … … … … … … … … 200 4.10 Reconciliatory Process … … …. …. …. …. … …. …. 212 CHAPTER FIVE Summary, Conclusion and Recommendations … … … … … 214 5.1 Summary of Findings … … … … … … … 214 5.2 Conclusion … … … … … … … 219 5.3 Recommendation … … … … … … … 219 Bibliography … … … … … … .. … … … 221 Appendices … … … … … … … … …. 243 vi LIST OF TABLES Table 1 Logical Data Framework 58 Table 2.1.1 OPEC and Non OPEC Super Giant Oil Field and Reserves 62 Table 2.1.2 Stages of Oil Production and Its Uses 64 Table 2.2.1 MNOCs Operating in Nigeria as at 2006 68 Table 2.2.2 Crude Oil Production Summary in BPD, April 1967 68 Table 2.2.3 NNPCs Monthly Production Profile Vs Shuts In (2008) 69 Table 2.2.4 NNPCs Monthly Production Profile Vs Shuts In (Jan/Feb, 2009) 69 Table 2.2.5 Oil Spill Incidents in Nigeria (1976-1996) 70 Table 2.2.6 Summary of Adverse Impacts of Petroleum Development 73 Table 2.2.7 Flaring of Natural Gas in Major Oil Producing countries 74 Table 2.2.8 Effect of Gas Flaring and soil and Water Acidification 76 Table 2.3.1 Profile of Active Communal & Ethnic Group in the Niger Delta 91 Table 2.3.2 Profile of Active youth Association in the Niger Delta Struggle 92 Table 2.3.3 Profile of Pan Ethnic Civil Group in the Niger Delta 93 Table 2.3.4 Profile of local environmental & civil rights groups in the Niger Delta 94 Table 2.4.1 Main Features of Selected INGO 96 Table 3.1.1 Twenty most oil dependent countries as at 2000 (% Total Export) 103 Table 3.1.2 Twenty most oil dependent countries as at 2000 (% GDP) 105 Table 3.1.3 Oil Supply and Reserves by Region, 2001 109 Table 3.1.4 U.S. Oil Dependency 110 Table 3.2.1 Chronology of U.S. Energy and Foreign Policy 118 Table 3.2.1 End States 123 Table 3.2.2 African Theater Strategic Objectives 123 Table 3.2.3 U.S. Military Aid 125 Table 3.2.4 U.S. Security Assistance Program for Nigeria (FY 1999-2002) 127 Table 3.2.5 U.S. Security Assistance Program for Nigeria (FY 2003-2006) 127 Table 3.2.6 U.S. Security Assistance Program for Nigeria (FY 2007-2010) 127 vii Table 3.2.7 Global Exporters of Weapons in 1996- 2001 129 Table 3.3.1 Minorities and the Willinks Commission 132 Table 3.3.2 International standards and codes, signed, Ratified 147 And Domesticated by Nigeria Table 4.2.1 Oil Field Facilities in Ogoniland in 2003 168 Table 4.3.1 Compensation Awards in Selected Oil Related Cases 176 Table 4.9.1 Remedies under the Alien Torts Claims Act 207 viii LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2.2.1 Major Oil Spill in the world 65 Figure 3.2.2 Budget Request by Country (FY 2011) 128 ix ABSTRACT The study sets out to examine the effect of the enforcement of United States Alien Torts Claims Act on human rights infringement in Ogoniland of Nigeria‘s Niger Delta. The aim of the research was to provide a policy framework which could be used to halt oil conflict and to improve the governance of resource management. The theory of the Rentier State was adopted as our theoretical framework. The study relied on observation derived from documentary sources of recorded human documents such as case laws, charters, treatise, Books, Journals, internet sources, websites to international bodies and field observation. Data analysis was based on the single case pre-test-post-test quasi experimental design which was also used in controlling internal threats to validity. The study found that the enforcement of international regulatory instruments on oil corporations by international nongovernmental organizations through campaigns and court actions in the United States ensured the accountability of oil corporations which reduced the incidence of human rights infringements in Ogoniland. The study equally found that the subsisting military alliance between the Nigerian government and the U.S. Government undermine the capacity of the Nigerian State to enforce the liability of oil corporations for violations of international law. Accordingly, the study showed that the U.S. Government‘s dependence on Nigeria‘s oil and its military pact with the Nigerian State for oil security puts on hold Nigeria‘s Government capacity to mediate oil conflict and enforce international law. It was further shown that the oil-rentier nexus underscores the uninterrupted flow of oil rents to the state as well as profit to the oil corporations which engenders oil externalities and provided the immediate context for armed conflict. The study showed that Royal Dutch Shell was complicit in the violation of international humanitarian law in Ogoniland. Subsequently, the adjudication of the Alien Torts Claims Act provided financial settlement and a Trust for community development which led to the cessation of hostility between Royal Dutch Shell and Ogoni community. The study therefore recommends the abrogation of laws that disempowers the oil bearing communities and the home state of oil corporations should ensure that victims of human rights infringement obtain access to legal remedy. x CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background to the Study The globalization of law has engendered the development of international norms and institutions for the protection of human rights in our century than at any previous point in human civilization. The outcome is an international recognition that human rights ought to be honoured as a basis for human development, democracy and good governance. Subsequently the United Nations Organization (U.N.O), the International Court of Justice (I.C.J), the International Criminal Court (I.C.C), the African Union, is all committed to the enthronement of human rights. Paradoxically, the attainment of human rights in the less developed countries, particularly in resource rich African countries seems to be a contemporary utopia. This is borne out of the fact that the continuous outbursts of conflicts are immense and monumental, its impacts have led to the loss of about $300b within the last three decades, and it is unabated (Volman, 2003). This study takes interest in militarized commerce as a form of human rights infringement and in doing so it seeks to focus on the Niger Delta. For instance, the killing of 80 unarmed villagers over the protestation of oil spillages in Umuechem village in Rivers State by the Nigerian security forces in 1990 is well documented (HRW, 1999:112).