A LIFE UNLIVED: THE ROMAN FUNERARY COMMEMORATION OF CHILDREN A LIFE UNLIVED: THE ROMAN FUNERARY COMMEMORATION OF CHILDREN FROM THE FIRST CENTURY BC TO THE MID-SECOND CENTURY AD By BARBARA NANCY SCARFO, B.A. A Thesis Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree Master of Arts McMaster University © Copyright by Barbara Nancy Scarfo, September 2012 M. A. Thesis – B. N. Scarfo; McMaster University – Classics. McMaster University MASTER OF ARTS (2012) Hamilton, Ontario (Classics) TITLE: A Life Unlived: The Roman Funerary Commemoration of Children From the First Century BC to the Mid-Second Century AD AUTHOR: Barbara Nancy Scarfo, B.A. (McMaster University) SUPERVISOR: Dr. Michele George NUMBER OF PAGES: (vii) (128) ii M. A. Thesis – B. N. Scarfo; McMaster University – Classics. ABSTRACT This thesis is concerned with the representation of children on sculptural funerary commemoration, with a focus on freedmen panel reliefs and funerary altars. Although there is evidence found from all regions of the Empire, the majority of the material discussed here is from the city of Rome itself. Representations of young children first appear on freedmen panel reliefs, which date to the end of the Republic and were produced into the first century of the Empire. When this genre declined in popularity at the end of the first century AD, funerary altars emerged as the new, preferred form of commemoration. The goal of this thesis is to show that these two types of funerary monuments reveal much about the children themselves, but also provide insight into the social and cultural identity of their parents. Due to the family relationships expressed on these commemorations, I also evaluate the degree of affect demonstrated by the parents or the dedicator towards the children present on these monuments. The first chapter provides a socio-cultural background on the role of children in the family and Roman society as well as the importance of funerary commemoration. In this chapter I also discuss the likelihood of high infant and child mortality rates and explore reactions towards the death of children in literary evidence and social conventions. In the first half of the second chapter I provide a background on the significance of the freedman family, I then delve into an examination of the panel reliefs themselves. The third chapter examines funerary altars that commemorate young children. The material discussed in this chapter is analyzed through a case study approach of nine altars, examining both the epigraphic elements and the sculptural components. iii M. A. Thesis – B. N. Scarfo; McMaster University – Classics. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First and foremost, I would like to thank my supervisor, Dr. Michele George, for not only her support throughout this process, but also for introducing me to the fascinating institution of the Roman family and its representation in material culture. Her enthusiasm, insightful guidance, and constructive criticism have been absolutely vital to the completion of this thesis. Sincerest thanks must also be extended to the members of my thesis committee, Dr. Evan Haley and Dr. Martin Beckmann, for their patience, support, and interest in my findings. I also thank Dr. Claude Eilers who kindly supplied for Dr. Beckmann during my defense and for providing his own valuable input. I would like to warmly thank Dr. Spencer Pope and Dr. Paul Murgatroyd, whose kind words of encouragement caused me to pursue graduate level study in the first place. I acknowledge the Department of Classics, the School of Graduate Studies at McMaster University, and the E. T. Salmon Fund in Roman Studies for their financial support throughout this endeavour. I wish to extend my gratitude to my fellow graduate students in the department for their wonderful friendship and unwavering support, as well as to Carmen Camilleri whose advice and encouragement has proven to be most valuable. I also sincerely thank my family and friends for taking a genuine interest in my work and for tolerating my preoccupation with this thesis. Lastly, I would like to express my warmest thanks to Nate Tracey, to whom I am indebted. Your loving support and patience encourages me always. D(is) · M(anibus) Miroslava · Stribrny Carissima · Avia Vixit · A(nnis) · XCI · M(ensibus) · IV · D(iebus) · I iv M. A. Thesis – B. N. Scarfo; McMaster University – Classics. TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Abbreviations…………………………………………………………………….vi Introduction……………………………………………………………………………....1 Chapter 1: The Role of Children in the Roman Family and in Roman Funerary Commemoration Introduction………………………………………………………………………………..5 The Role of Children in the Family……………………………………………………….6 Death in Childhood and Infancy…………………………………………………………13 Reactions Towards the Death of Children: i) Mourning Practices and Social Conventions…………………………………………..17 ii) Literary Evidence………………………………………………………………….......19 Roman Funerary Commemoration and the Family……………………………………....23 Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………..25 Chapter 2: Freedmen Reliefs Introduction………………………………………………………………………………27 The Socio-Cultural Background of the Freedman Family……………………………….28 Roman Freedmen Panel Reliefs………………………………………………………….40 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………….....60 Chapter 3: Funerary Altars Introduction………………………………………………………………………………62 Epigraphic Features………………………………………………………………………64 Portraiture and General Presentation: i) Boys…………………………………………………………………………………....68 ii) Girls…………………………………………………………………………………...75 Activities Depicted on Funerary Altars………………………………………………….80 i) Oratory and Education………………………………………………………………....81 ii) Banqueting…………………………………………………………………………….86 iii) Equestrian Activities…………………………………………………………………89 iv) Goddesses…………………………………………………………………………….91 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………….99 Conclusions…………………………………………………………………………….101 Bibliography…………………………………………………………………………...107 Image Appendix……………………………………………………………………….113 v M. A. Thesis – B. N. Scarfo; McMaster University – Classics. LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AHB The Ancient History Bulletin = Revue d’histoire ancienne. Calgary: University of Calgary, Department of Greek and Roman Studies AJA American Journal of Archaeology: the journal of the Archaeological Instituted of America. Boston: Boston University, Archaeological Institute of America. AJAH American Journal of Ancient History. Cambridge: Harvard University. AJPh American Journal of Philology. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. AncSoc Ancient Society. Leuven: Peeters. Arctos Arctos: Acta Philologica Fennica. Helsinki: Klassilis-filologinen yhdistys. CIL Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. CPh Classical Philology: a journal devoted to research in classical antiquity. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. CQ Classical Quarterly. Oxford: Oxford Univerity Press. G&R Greece and Rome. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Historia Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte = revue d’histoire ancienne. Stuttgart: Steiner. IG Inscriptiones Graecae urbis Romae. JDAI Jahrbuch des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts. Berlin: de Gruyter. JRS The Journal of Roman Studies. London: Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies. REA Revue des études anciennes. Pessae: Université Michel de Montaigne, Maison de l’archéologie. vi M. A. Thesis – B. N. Scarfo; McMaster University – Classics. DECLARATION OF ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT The author declares that the content of this research has been completed by Barbara Nancy Scarfo, with recognition of the contributions of the supervisory committee comprising of Dr. Michele George, Dr. Evan W. Haley, and Dr. Martin Beckmann during the research and writing process. vii M. A. Thesis – B. N. Scarfo; McMaster University – Classics. INTRODUCTION The preservation of memory was of great importance in Roman society. Private Roman citizens were able to achieve this and convey aspects of their identity in a very public way through their funerary commemorations. These monuments were erected outside of the walls of Rome and lined the streets that led into the city, which ensured that they were visible to all who passed by them. While there are examples of dedications from individuals of different social and economic statuses, the majority of extant funerary commemorations were commissioned by those who were neither members of the elite nor the poor, but who came from the middle socio-economic groups. Funerary commemoration was an important aspect of the spread of Roman culture, as is indicated by its presence in the provinces. This category of material evidence is of particular interest to Roman historians as it was a cultural phenomenon that took a variety of forms and is one from which we are able to draw information. Funerary commemoration took different forms, depending on the individual’s economic means, and range from grandiose mausolea to smaller scale memorials such as the more modest stelae. Despite the numerous kinds of commemoration, two distinct elements that appear on many of these monuments are significant: portraiture and an inscription. In most cases these features complement one another and, when analyzed together, they can reveal important details about the identity of the deceased. Within the city of Rome itself, a considerable number of extant funerary monuments indicate through the inscription and the sculptural component that they were set up by families. 1 M. A. Thesis – B. N. Scarfo; McMaster University – Classics. Furthermore, the most common relationship that is established in this group of commemorations is that between parents