“TO REDEEM THE SOUL OF AMERICA:” THE LEADERSHIP CHALLENGES MARTIN LUTHER KING, JR. FACED AND MANAGED AS LEADER OF A SOCIAL MOVEMENT* by HILDA RAYE TOMPKINS (Under the Direction of BRADLEY COURTENAY) ABSTRACT Adult education is a key component to social movements and leadership is crucial to the success of social movements involving adult education. However, there is a gap in the literature relative to the specific challenges leaders face and how they manage these challenges when leading social movements involving adult education. This study adds to the literature about leadership in social movements involving adult education by examining one of the most widely known and successful movements in the world the civil rights movement (CRM). The purpose of this study was to examine the leadership challenges Martin Luther King, Jr. (MLK) faced and addressed as he led a nonviolent movement for social change. This dissertation study was conducted using a basic qualitative design. Data was collected from interviews from a purposeful sample of seven participants. Data collected was triangulated through document analysis and member checks. The findings of this study reveal the personal (reluctance to lead and threats), internal organizational (egos and competition from African American leaders and criticism from African American and White leaders) and external movement (resistance to the use of nonviolence and leadership succession plan) challenges MLK faced as leader of the CRM. The findings also reveal the strategies, skills and ideals he used to effectively manage these challenges. He managed the personal challenges by using his personal relationship with God. He managed the internal organizational challenges by turning to humor, explaining decisions in writing and practicing team leadership. He managed the external movement challenges by providing education and training, relating scripture to the nonviolent approach and practicing what he professed and offering leadership development opportunities. INDEX WORDS: Adult Education, Civil Rights Movement, Leadership, Martin Luther King, Jr. and Social Movements *The phrase, “To Redeem the Soul of America,” was mentioned by C. T. Vivian in an interview for this study. Vivian noted that Martin Luther King, Jr. wrote the phrase on a window at the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) headquarters. Dr. King viewed the mission of SCLC as the transformation of a society, not simply social change. “TO REDEEM THE SOUL OF AMERICA:” THE LEADERSHIP CHALLENGES MARTIN LUTHER KING, JR. FACED AND MANAGED AS LEADER OF A SOCIAL MOVEMENT by HILDA RAYE TOMPKINS ABJ, University of Georgia, 1983 M.Ed., Georgia State University, 1998 A Dissertation Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of The University of Georgia in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree DOCTOR OF EDUCATION ATHENS, GEORGIA 2009 © 2009 Hilda Raye Tompkins All Rights Reserved “TO REDEEM THE SOUL OF AMERICA:” THE LEADERSHIP CHALLENGES MARTIN LUTHER KING, JR. FACED AND MANAGED AS LEADER OF A SOCIAL MOVEMENT by HILDA RAYE TOMPKINS Major Professor: Bradley Courtenay Committee: Ronald Cervero Maurice Daniels Juanita Johnson-Bailey Electronic Version Approved: Maureen Grasso Dean of the Graduate School The University of Georgia December 2009 DEDICATION To My Lord and Savior Jesus Christ from Whom all Blessings flow. To my mother and father Johnnie Mae and A.J. who taught me everything I know. To my sisters and brothers for their unconditional love and prayer. To my aunts, uncles and cousins for their guidance and care. To all my children: nieces; nephews; gods; and grands. To my ancestors on whose strong shoulders I stand. To my friends around the world for their support and loyalty. To the heroes and heroines who sacrificed that we may all be free. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to acknowledge the person who was my number one fan not only in this effort but in many of my life’s endeavors my mentor, my inspiration, my friend Mrs. Coretta Scott King. To my dear friend who showed unwavering confidence in me by celebrating this work before it was completed Yolanda Denise King. To those who gave generously of themselves to help bring this dissertation to fruition: Mrs. Xernona Clayton; Rev. Dr. Bernard LaFayette; Rev. Dr. Joseph Lowery; Rev. Dr. Otis Moss; Rev. James Orange; Rev. C. T. Vivian; and Ambassador Andrew Young. To the man whose life and work served as the impetus for this dissertation the Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. To my major professor, Bradley Courtenay for his unwavering and consistent guidance and support. To my committee Ronald Cervero, Maurice Daniels and Juanita Johnson-Bailey for staying the course. v TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .......................................................................................................................v LIST OF TABLES .....................................................................................................................................i x CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION .............………………..………………………………………….……..1 Who was Martin Luther King, Jr.?............. ........................................................................2 Adult Education and Social Movements............. .……………………………………..5 Statement of the Problem..............…………………………………………………….8 Purpose of the Study and Research Questions..............………………………………..9 Significance Statement.............. ……..………………………………………………..9 2 REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ..............…………..………………………………..12 Introduction……………………………............. ……………………………………12 Leadership and its Challenges…………………............. …………………………….13 Overview of Social Movements……………………….............……………………..19 Adult Education Leadership and Social Movements ......................................................25 Prelude to Civil Rights Movement…………………………………… ............ ……..33 Civil Rights Movement……………………………………………………................35 Civil Rights Movement and Leadership……………………………………...............44 Martin Luther King Jr.’s Leadership................................................................................45 Women in the Civil Rights Movement ............................. ……………………………55 Summary……………………………………………… .............……………………57 3 METHODOLOGY...……………………………………………… ............…………...58 vi Design of the Study……………………………………………………….............….58 Sample Selection………………………………………………………… ............….59 Data Collection………………………………............ ……………………………....61 Data Analysis………………………………………….............……………………..65 Validity and Reliability……………………………………… .............……………...66 Subjectivity Statement………………………………………………............. ………69 Summary……..…………………………………………………………….. .............70 4 PARTICIPANT BIOGRAPHIES.…………….............………………………………...72 Rev. James Orange………………………………… ............………………………..72 Ambassador Andrew Young……………………………… ............ ………………...74 Rev .Dr. Bernard LaFayette.………………………………………............ ………...76 Rev. Dr. Otis Moss…..…………………………………………………….............…78 Rev. C.T. Vivian………………………………… ............ ………………………….80 Xernona Clayton………………………………………… ............ ……………….. ..82 Rev. Dr. Joseph Lowery…..……………………………………… ............…………84 Summary………………………………………………………………… ............….86 5 FINDINGS..…………………………………… ............ ……………………………. ...88 Overview…………………………………………… ………………… .. 88 Personal Challenges……………………………………………............…………….89 Internal Organization Challenges……………………………………… .......... ……105 External Movement Challenges……………………………........... ……………..…117 Managing Personal Challenges……………………………………........... ………...122 Managing the Internal Organizational Challenges…………………………..............126 vii Managing External Movement Challenges………………............ …………………135 Summary…………………………………………………………............ ………...148 6 SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, DISCUSSION, IMPLICATIONS AND RECCOMMENDATIONS...…………………………………………..............…149 Overview………………………………………............. …………………………..149 Summary..……………..……………………………… ............. …………………..149 Conclusions And Discussions..………………………………… ............ ………......150 Implications for Practice………. ……………………………………….............…..156 Implications for Research……….............………………………………………......157 REFERENCES………………………………………….............…………………………………162 APPENDICES………………………………………………… ............ ………………………….173 A Consent Form………………………………………………............. …………………173 B Interview Guide…………………………………………………….............………….175 C Documents………………………………………………………………… ............….176 vii i LIST OF TABLES Table 1 Leadership Challenges and How They were Managed.................................................89 i x CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION One of the prominent themes of adult education is social justice. Education about social justice is often found in social movements that involve adult education. Some movements are influenced by their leader as in the case of Miles Horton and the Highlander Movement. Perhaps one of the most well known social movements where adult education occurred is the Civil Rights Movement led by Martin Luther King, Jr. The next few paragraphs describe his vision of the movement. August 28, 1963, was a warm and muggy day in our nation’s capitol, I am told. Late in the morning hours, people began to gather at the Lincoln Memorial for a peaceful demonstration for freedom, justice and equality. By the time the program began, 250,000 people of all races, creeds and color would have gathered to hear the messages brought by preachers, teachers, politicians, celebrities and the likes. But no words would be repeated as much, remembered as well and