Water Resources in American Sa¯moa: Law and Policy Opportunities for Climate Change Adaptation 2016 RICHARD WALLSGROVE AND ZENA GRECNI Pacific Regional Integrated Sciences and Assessments Program Water Resources in American Sa¯moa: Law and Policy Opportunities for Climate Change Adaptation 2016 Pacific Regional Integrated Sciences and Assessments Program Richard Wallsgrove and Zena Grecni Acknowledgments The authors wish to acknowledge the contributions and assistance of the following individuals who contrib- uted their time and expertise in the preparation of this report: Tim Bodell, Laura Brewington, Maxine Burkett, Sean Eagan, Doug Fenner, Melissa Finucane, Emily Gaskin, Scot Izuka, Krista Jaspers, Victoria Keener, Danielle Mauga, Whitney Petersen, Chris Shuler, Kelley Anderson Tagarino, Ephraim Temple, Chistianera Tuitele, Robert Kerns, and Mike Walters. This work is supported by funding from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Ad- ministration for the Pacific RISA Program, under grant number NA10OAR4310216. A note about the presentation of Samoan language in this report: In rendering Samoan words, the authors have used diacritical marks. Several of the sources quoted and cited do not use diacritical marks and are repro- duced in their original form. Please cite this work as follows: Richard Wallsgrove and Zena Grecni. 2016. Water Resources in American Sāmoa: Law and Policy Oppor- tunities for Climate Change Adaptation. Honolulu: Pacific Regional Integrated Sciences and Assessments. Available at http://www.pacificrisa.org/resources/publications/ Cover photograph by Christopher Shuler. © 2016 East-West Center ii Water Resources in American Sāmoa Pacific RISA Program The Pacific Regional Integrated Sciences and Assessments Program (“Pacific RISA”) strives to enhance Pacific Island communities’ ability to understand, plan for, and respond to changing climate conditions. As one of 10 US RISA programs funded by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Pacific RISA conducts interdisciplinary research, assessment, and outreach. Pacific RISA emphasizes the engagement of communi- ties, governments, and businesses in developing effective policies to build resilience in key sectors such as wa- ter resource management, coastal and marine resources, fisheries, agriculture, tourism, disaster management, and public health. The primary geographic focus of Pacific RISA is the US-Affiliated Pacific Islands (Hawai‘i, Guam, American Samoa, Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, Republic of the Marshall Islands, and Republic of Palau), networked with Pacific regional partners and the US Mainland. The Core Office of Pacific RISA is housed at the East-West Center in Honolulu, Hawai‘i. The East-West Center promotes better relations and understanding among the people and nations of the United States, Asia, and the Pacific through cooperative study, research, and dialogue. Established by the US Congress in 1960, the Center serves as a resource for information and analysis on critical issues of common concern, bringing people together to exchange views, build expertise, and develop policy options. The Center is an independent, public, nonprofit organization with funding from the US government, and additional support provided by private agencies, individuals, foundations, corporations, and governments in the region. See: EastWestCenter.org. For further information, please contact us: Pacific Regional Integrated Sciences and Assessments Program (Pacific RISA) East-West Center 1601 East-West Road Honolulu, HI 96848-1601 (808) 944-7111 www.PacificRISA.org Pacific Regional Integrated Sciences and Assessments Program iii Abbreviations Frequently Used in Text ASEPA American Sāmoa Environmental Protection Agency ASPA American Sāmoa Power Authority ENSO El Niño Southern Oscillation EQA Environmental Quality Act EQC Environmental Quality Commission NPS US National Park Service Pacific RISA Pacific Regional Integrated Sciences and Assessments SPCZ South Pacific Convergence Zone USEPA US Environmental Protection Agency USGS US Geological Survey iv Water Resources in American Sāmoa Table of Contents 1. Introduction and Summary of Adaptation Opportunities .................................................. 1 2. Overview of Freshwater Resources and Climate Change Risks ......................................... 2 2.1 Rainfall ...................................................................................................................................................................2 2.2 Groundwater Resources .......................................................................................................................................2 2.3 Surface Water Resources ......................................................................................................................................3 2.4 Water Quality Challenges and Trends ................................................................................................................4 2.4.1 Surface Water Quality ................................................................................................................................4 2.4.2 Groundwater Quality .................................................................................................................................6 2.5 Population and Freshwater Demand ..................................................................................................................7 3. Climate Change Trends, Projections, and Impacts on American Sa¯ moa’s Water Resources ................................................................................................................ 8 3.1 Rising Air Temperatures ......................................................................................................................................8 3.2 Rising Sea Level .....................................................................................................................................................8 3.3 Variable Rainfall ....................................................................................................................................................9 3.4 Climate Projections ...............................................................................................................................................9 3.4.1 The Intensity and Frequency of Days of Extreme Rainfall Are Projected to Increase .......................9 3.4.2 Wet Season and Total Annual Rainfall Are Projected to Increase .................................................... 10 3.4.3 Temperatures Are Projected to Increase ............................................................................................... 11 3.4.4 Days of Extreme Heat Are Projected to Increase ................................................................................. 11 3.4.5 Sea Level Is Projected to Rise ................................................................................................................. 11 4. Adaptive Capacity under American Sa¯ moa’s Current Law and Policy Landscape for Managing Freshwater Resources ...............................................................12 4.1 Characteristics of Adaptive Capacity from Water Resources and Climate Change Adaptation in Hawai‘i: Adaptive Tools in the Current Law and Policy Framework................................... 12 4.2 Adaptive Capacity under Existing Territorial Law and Policy ..................................................................... 13 4.2.1 Territorial Executive Order on Climate Change .................................................................................. 13 4.2.2 Environmental Quality Act ..................................................................................................................... 14 4.2.3 Water Quality Standards, and Fagatele Bay Climate Action Plan as an Example of Adaptive Capacity Conferred through Regulatory Designation of Special Water Resources ....................................................................................................................................... 15 4.2.4 Territorial Safe Drinking Water Standards and Tie-In to Federal Law ............................................. 16 4.2.5 Regulation of Public Water and Wastewater Systems ......................................................................... 17 Pacific Regional Integrated Sciences and Assessments Program v 5. Conclusions: Nine Opportunities to Enhance Adaptive Capacity in American Sa¯ moa ...............................................................................................................18 5.1 Climate-Conscious Monitoring of Freshwater Resources ............................................................................ 18 5.2 Climate Modeling .............................................................................................................................................. 18 5.3 Bottom Up—Awareness and Tools for Understanding the Impacts of Climate Change at the Local Level ................................................................................................................................ 19 5.4 Top Down—Enhancing Adaptive Capacity via Territorial and Federal Policy ......................................... 19 5.5 Climate-Conscious Water Planning and Scenario Planning ........................................................................ 20 5.6 Convening and Supporting the Existing Climate Stakeholder Network ...................................................