EXPLAINING VARIATION IN ADOPTION AND IMPLEMENTATION OF ANTI-CORRUPTION POLICIES _______________________________________ A Dissertation presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School at the University of Missouri-Columbia _______________________________________________________ In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in Public Affairs _____________________________________________________ by Kyoung-sun Min Dr. Alasdair S. Roberts and Dr. Mary Stegmaier, Dissertation Supervisors July 2018 © Copyright by Kyoung-sun Min 2018 All Rights Reserved The undersigned, appointed by the dean of the Graduate School, have examined the dissertation entitled EXPLAINING VARIATION IN ADOPTION AND IMPLEMENTATION OF ANTI-CORRUPTION POLICIES presented by Kyoung-sun Min, a candidate for the degree of doctor of philosophy, and hereby certify that, in their opinion, it is worthy of acceptance. Professor Mary Stegmaier Professor Alasdair S. Roberts Professor Lael Keiser Professor Judith Stallmann To Grace ACKNOWLEDGMENTS While writing this dissertation, I have had the benefit of comments from great teachers. It is difficult to express in words my gratitude to Professor Alasdair S. Roberts. He has taught me how to study research questions in broader contexts. Without his guidance, this dissertation would not have been written. I am particularly grateful to Professor Mary Stegmaier. As my co-advisor, she has helped me in many of my hours of need. I am truly indebted to her. I must also thank Professors Lael Keiser and Judith Stallmann for their support and comments. I wish to thank Professor Colleen Heflin, who has firmly believed in my potential. This essay is a small step toward living up to her expectations. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES ...................................................................................................... VII LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................ VII ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................. VIII CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION .................................................................................... 1 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ..................................................................... 13 CORRUPTION .................................................................................................................. 13 Definition of Corruption ........................................................................................... 13 Grand Corruption and Petty Corruption .................................................................. 16 Impacts of Corruption ............................................................................................... 17 ANTI-CORRUPTION POLICIES ......................................................................................... 19 Anti-Corruption Movement ....................................................................................... 19 General Prescriptions for fighting corruption .......................................................... 24 Accessing Compliance with Anti-Corruption Policies ............................................. 28 Measuring the Level of Corruption........................................................................... 30 Measuring Impact of Anti-Corruption Policies ........................................................ 33 MAIN CONCEPTS ............................................................................................................ 34 Political Will ............................................................................................................. 34 Rational Power Maximizer ....................................................................................... 39 Governance Strategy ................................................................................................. 41 CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK ............................................. 44 iii RESEARCH QUESTION .................................................................................................... 44 MODEL........................................................................................................................... 45 COMPARATIVE-HISTORICAL METHOD ........................................................................... 50 CRITERIA FOR CASE SELECTION .................................................................................... 53 CHAPTER 4: INDIA ...................................................................................................... 58 OVERVIEW ..................................................................................................................... 58 CONDITIONS FACED BY INDIA’S LEADERS ..................................................................... 62 International Affairs.................................................................................................. 62 Social Affairs ............................................................................................................. 65 Economic Affairs ....................................................................................................... 67 Political Affairs ......................................................................................................... 69 GOVERNANCE STRATEGY .............................................................................................. 71 ANTI-CORRUPTION POLICIES ......................................................................................... 74 Political Leaders and Anti-Corruption Policies ....................................................... 74 Types of Anti-Corruption Policies ............................................................................ 77 CONCLUSION .................................................................................................................. 89 CHAPTER 5: RUSSIA ................................................................................................... 90 OVERVIEW ..................................................................................................................... 90 CONDITIONS FACED BY RUSSIA’S LEADERS................................................................... 95 International Affairs.................................................................................................. 95 Social Affairs ............................................................................................................. 98 Economic Affairs ..................................................................................................... 101 iv Political Affairs ....................................................................................................... 103 GOVERNANCE STRATEGY ............................................................................................ 106 ANTI-CORRUPTION POLICIES ....................................................................................... 110 Political Leaders and Anti-Corruption Policies ..................................................... 110 Types of Anti-Corruption Policies .......................................................................... 111 CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................ 116 CHAPTER 6: CHINA .................................................................................................. 119 OVERVIEW ................................................................................................................... 119 CONDITIONS FACED BY CHINA’S LEADERS .................................................................. 123 International Affairs................................................................................................ 123 Social Affairs ........................................................................................................... 128 Economic Affairs ..................................................................................................... 133 Political Affairs ....................................................................................................... 136 GOVERNANCE STRATEGY ............................................................................................... 139 ANTI-CORRUPTION POLICIES ....................................................................................... 144 Political Leaders and Anti-Corruption Policies ..................................................... 144 Types of Anti-Corruption Policies .......................................................................... 145 CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................ 152 CHAPTER 7: CONCLUSION..................................................................................... 160 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................ 160 DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS ............................................................................ 161 India ........................................................................................................................ 161 v Russia ...................................................................................................................... 164 China ......................................................................................................................