AN ARCHAEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION OF ETHNICITY AT LAS VARAS, PERU by Howard I. Tsai A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Anthropology) in the University of Michigan 2012 Doctoral Committee: Professor Joyce Marcus, Chair Professor Kent V. Flannery Professor Philip D. Gingerich Professor Bruce Mannheim © Howard Tsai 2012 To my parents ii Acknowledgments This dissertation was made possible by the kindness and generosity of my colleagues and mentors, members of the Las Varas Archaeological Project, individuals from domestic and foreign institutions, and my friends and families. It is impossible to convey the amount of time and assistance given to me by my advisor, Joyce Marcus. Joyce has devoted so much of her labor and energy to my dissertation; she has given me invaluable advice on archaeology, writing, teaching, grants, job applications, and various other aspects of my professional development. She has generously shared her intelligence, wisdom, and knowledge with me. I cannot thank her enough. She will now receive a lifetime subscription to my future publications. I am fortunate to have the complete support and constant encouragement of my parents, my sister, and my grandparents to pursue archaeology. I am sorry to have worried my parents by traveling so far from home. I thank them for visiting me in Peru during my fieldwork, and I am very happy and blessed to have their endless love and understanding. I dedicate this dissertation to them. I want to thank my committee members Kent Flannery, Philip Gingerich, and Bruce Mannheim. I have learned much from Kent’s insights, analyses, and perspicacious syntheses. I will cherish his stories of the great (and not so great) moments in archaeology, which often brought the house down in the 4027 seminar room. I am iii grateful to Professors Philip Gingerich and Bruce Mannheim for reading and commenting on my dissertation. By showing me the complexity of Andean ethnography and ethnohistory, Bruce has sparked my fascination on these subjects. His class “Form and Interpretation” is the most theoretically challenging and stimulating course I have taken. I hope to see him again in conferences to discuss theory and the Andes over a pisco sour (or two). I give my deepest thanks to the Bazán family of Pay Pay, who took me in as a member of their family and gave me much warmth and joy. Through them I was introduced to the Andean kin network. When I traveled between the coast, mid-valley, and highlands, searching for the elusive ulluchu or the palace of Guzmango Capac, Señor and Señora Bazán always made sure that I could find a primo or compadre in the towns or villages I was visiting. Their friendship and cariño shaped my understanding of exchange and interaction in the Andes. And for that reason I will never miss an opportunity to visit them in Pay Pay. I was fortunate to have worked with a team of talented and excellent archaeologists at Las Varas: Leonardo Murga (co-director), Luis Chuquipoma (supervising archaeologist), Nicolás “Totti” Gálvez (supervising archaeologist), Solsiré Cusicanqui (supervising archaeologist), and Maritza Bazán (lab manager). I am grateful for their assistance and friendship, and I hope to collaborate with them again in the future. I could not have asked for a better team of excavators: Huner Bazán, Napoleón Bazán (my compadre), Lorenzo Bazán, Julio León, Sr. Clemente León, and José “Pachi” Palacios. They never missed a day of work, always gave 100%, and were a constant source of jokes, local legends, and chicha. iv I am indebted to Dr. Carol Mackey, who introduced me to the archaeology of the north coast of Peru. Carol is a great mentor. At Farfán, she would show me an excavation unit and explain to me why that unit was opened, what she had found, and where her next unit would be. She patiently taught me the fundamentals of excavation and stratigraphy. On my next project, I hope to show her my excavations and explain to her my methods and objectives, just as she did for me years ago at Farfán. I have learned much from the talented individuals of “Team Farfán”: Robyn Cutright, Abigail Levine, Regina Richter, Gabriela Cervantes, Jason Toohey, Hugo Ikehara, Enrique Zavaleta, César Jáuregui, and Jorge Terrones. Robyn and I conducted our dissertation fieldwork in the same year. During that time we constantly visited each other’s site to compare the material culture of the coast with that of the mid-valley. I treasure her friendship and company, and I look forward to seeing Robyn again on the balcony of the Estación to discuss pottery typology, lunch specials, and the inter- digitation of ethnic groups in the Jequetepeque Valley. Enrique Zavaleta and César Jáuregui have patiently taught me the archaeology and local customs of Peru and generously hosted me in their homes whenever I visit Trujillo. I am grateful for their friendship and look forward to accompanying Enrique as he begins his long-term archaeological investigation of Huarmey. I will also help him find the best ceviche in town. I want to thank my professors at the Museum of Anthropology – John O’Shea, Henry Wright, Bob Whallon, Jeffrey Parsons, and Carla Sinopoli – for their support and guidance. I am sad to leave an institution filled with so many great scholars. I thank Jeff for reading chapters of my dissertation and occasionally leaving articles and books on my v desk (I know it’s you, Jeff). I also thank Gustavo Verdesio for our stimulating conversations on archaeology and interpretations of the past. My friends and colleagues have made my time in Ann Arbor a wonderful and exciting experience. I want to express my gratitude to Khori Newlander and Alexi Smith for helping me with my excavations at Las Varas. I will remember with great affection and fondness the 2001 cohort – Karma Cochran, Paul Duffy, Ana Jankovic, Hemanth Kadambi, and Bella Muntz. I am grateful to have shared time with a brilliant group of Andean archaeologists at Michigan: Véronique Bélisle, Allison Davis, Kenny Sims, and Alan Covey. With equal gratitude I treasure the company of wonderful Andean scholars: Guillermo Salas, Joshua Shapero, Angelica Serna, Nick Emlen, Alysa Handelsman, and Allie Caine. I give many thanks to my good friends Cameron Gokee, Alice Wright, Casey Barrier, Matt Gallon, Shaun Lynch, Eric Rupley, Amy Nicodemus, Ashley Lemke, Colin Quinn, Jason De León, Ivan Cangemi, Jana Mokrisova, Margaret Wilson, Alicia Boswell, Lenny Ureña, Uthara Suvrathan, and Andy Gurstelle. I thank the new students for their friendship and for reminding me that it’s time for me to graduate: Christina Perry, Lacey Carpenter, Anna Antoniou, Chelsea Fisher, and Travis Williams. And never shall I forget the camaraderie of Randy Hicks, Jonathan Devore, and Hemant Kannan. My dissertation project was made possible by generous funding from the Social Science Research Council, Fulbright-Hays Commission, American Philosophical Society, James B. Griffin Research Award from the Museum of Anthropology, Rackham Graduate School, and the Department of Anthropology. vi Table of Contents Dedication ........................................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgments.............................................................................................................. iii List of Figures .................................................................................................................. viii List of Tables .................................................................................................................. xvii Abstract .......................................................................................................................... xviii Chapter 1. The Archaeological Investigation of Ethnicity ..................................................1 Chapter 2. The Environment of Northern Peru ..................................................................24 Chapter 3. Northern Peru, AD 1000-1460 .........................................................................41 Chapter 4. The Residences of Las Varas ...........................................................................61 Chapter 5. The Ritual Boundaries of Las Varas ................................................................81 Chapter 6. The Cemeteries of Las Varas .........................................................................101 Chapter 7. Conclusions ....................................................................................................108 Tables and Figures ...........................................................................................................117 References Cited ..............................................................................................................253 vii List of Figures Figure 2.1. The coastal rivers of Peru .........................................................................................117 2.2. Idealized depiction of the coast, mid-valley, and highlands of Peru ........................118 2.3. A desert bluff overlooking agricultural fields in the lower Jequetepeque Valley ....119 2.4. Rivers of the north coast of Peru ...............................................................................119 2.5. Number of hectares irrigated in Peruvian valleys, ordered from north (left) to south ..........................................................................................................................................120