Lascars, c.1850 - 1950: The Lives and Identities of Indian Seafarers in Imperial Britain and India Ceri-Anne Fidler Student Number 012526765 Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy 2011 Cardiff University School of History, Archaeology and Religion UMI Number: U516542 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Dissertation Publishing UMI U516542 Published by ProQuest LLC 2013. Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. ProQuest LLC 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 PG/R/06/10 Cardiff UNIVERSITY PRIf YSGOL C a e RD y i§> SUMMARY OF THESIS: POSTGRADUATE RESEARCH DEGREES Please return the completed form to: School Research Office Please TYPE or write in BLACK ink and use BLOCK capitals SECTION A: TO BE COMPLETED BY THE CANDIDATE AND SUBMITTED WITH THE THESIS Student ID Number: 012526765 Title: Please circle appropriate value Ms/ Mrs/ Dr/ Rev/ Other, please specify ................ Surname: FIDLER First Names: CERI-ANNE School: SCHOOL OF HISTORY AND ARCHAEOLOGY Please circle appropriate value Title of Degree: EdD, EngD, DSW, DCIinPsy, DHS, MCh, Md, MPhil, MPhU/£hD> MScD by Research, PhD/ Other, please specify ............. .V— Full Title of Thesis LASCARS, C.1850 - 1950: THE LIVES AND IDENTITIES OF INDIAN SEAFARERS IN IMPERIAL BRITAIN AND INDIA PG/R/06/10 Cardiff UNIVERSITY PRIF YSGOL C a e RDV[§) Student ID Number: 012526765 Summary of Thesis: M y PhD thesis focuses on the lives o f Indian Lascars or seafarers in Imperial Britain between 1850 and 1950. I explore their working and living conditions on these ships. Issues such as their health and accommodation on shipboard are discussed and compared to those o f their British colleagues. The relationships and hierarchies o f power on shipboard are also considered. M y thesis challenges the perception that Indian seafarers’ resistance was always lawful and not blind, personalised or violent (Balachandran). The concept of moral economy is employed to illustrate how Indian seafarers had certain expectations of their rights on shipboard and protested against violations o f these standards when opportunities arose. I explore British perceptions of Indian seafarers. For example, depictions of Indians in the British popular press are explored. The position of Indian seafarers in relation to other non- European seafarers is also considered. M y thesis explores how Indian seafarers constructed and negotiated identities both collectively and as individuals in different contexts and at different times. Building upon theoretical approaches to identity, I illustrate how Indian seafarers constructed multiple and fluid identities that changed over time. I describe how Indian seafarers were able to “shuffle identities like cards” (Colley) and illustrate the reasoning and choice behind their identities (Sen). I also consider how Indian seafarers constructed, negotiated and manipulated the boundaries of collective identities. It explores the role of the family in the migration process, whether temporarily for work or for more long term migration and settlement in Britain. The role of the family in India in the decision to migrate and their support for absent seafarers is documented. The impact o f prolonged absences o f seafarers on fam ily life is also explored. The role and status o f Indian seafarers’ families in Britain is also explored. Form: PGR_Submission_200701 NOTICE OF SUBMISSION OF THESIS FORM: Car d iff POSTGRADUATE RESEARCH UNIVERSITY PR I FYSGOL C ^ R D y ^ APPENDIX 1: Specimen layout for Thesis Summary and Declaration/Statements page to be included in a Thesis DECLARATION This work has not previously been accepted in substance for any degree and is not concurrently submitted in candidature for any degree. Signed ..............................(candidate) Date ... 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Signed (candidate) Date ... .(Vf Form: PGR_Submission_200701 NOTICE OF SUBMISSION OF THESIS FORM: Car d iff POSTGRADUATE RESEARCH UNIVERSITY PRI FYSGOL C a e R D Y [§ > NOTICE OF SUBMISSION OF THESIS: POSTGRADUATE RESEARCH DEGREES Please TYPE or write in BLACK ink and use BLOCK capitals SECTION A: TO BE COMPLETED BY THE CANDIDATE AND SUBMITTED WITH THE THESIS CANDIDATE S LAST NAME FIDLER CANDIDATE’S FIRST NAME(S) CERI-ANNE CANDIDATE S ID NUMBER 012526765 SCHOOL SCHOOL OF HISTORY AND ARCHAEOLOGY Please circle appropriate degree title TITLE OF DEGREE EdD, EngD, DSW, DCIinPsy, DHS, MCh, MD, MPhil, MScD by Research, PhD LASCARS, C.1850 - 1950: THE LIVES AND IDENTITIES OF INDIAN SEAFARERS IN IMPERIAL BRITAIN FULL TITLE OF THESIS IS THIS A RESUBMISSION? 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C.1850 - 1950: The Lives and Identities of Indian Seafarers in Imperial Britain and India Contents List of Tables Page i List of Illustrations Page ii List of Abbreviations Page iii Glossary Page iv Acknowledgements Pages v to vi Introduction Pages 1 to 21 Chapter One Indian seafarers' conditions of life and work on British merchant ships Pages 22 to 77 Chapter Two British perceptions of and attitudes towards Indian seafarers Pages 78 to 118 Chapter Three Positioning Identities: The Indian seaman's perspective Pages 119 to 160 Chapter Four The Family Lives of Indian Seafarers Pages 161 to 194 Conclusion Pages 195 to 197 Primary Source Bibliography Pages 198 to 208 Secondary Source Bibliography Pages 209 to 219 List of Tables Table One Number of Lascars employed, 1891 -1 9 2 0 . Page 5 Table Two Number of Lascars employed, 1921 -1 9 3 8 . Page 6 Table Three Merchant Navy Death Rates, 1921 -1 9 3 0 . Page 27 Table Four European seafarers' admissions to hospitals Page 28 in the port of Calcutta, 1928 -1 9 32 . Table Five Indian Seafarers' admissions to hospitals in Page 29 the port of Calcutta, 1928-1932. Table Six Indian seafarers' Scale of Provisions, 1883. Page 35 Table Seven Indian Seafarers' Scale of Provision for ports Page 36 other than Bombay, 1931. Table Eight Special Scale of Provisions for Bombay crews, Page 37 1931. Table Nine Indian Seafarers' Scale of Provisions, 1937. Page 38 Table Ten A comparative table of wages in the Merchant Page 42 Navy, 1930 Table Eleven Comparison of Wage Rates for Calcutta (1914) Page 45 and Bombay (1915). Table Twelve Comparison of Wage Rates for Calcutta (1919) Page 46 and Bombay (1920). Table Thirteen Monthly Remittances from Prisoners of War. Page 175 i List of Illustrations Plate One Sunday Morning Parade of the Lascars Page 52 Plate Two Row of Lascars in a line being inspected Page 53 on board ship, 1935 Plate Three Six Lascars squatting on the ground working Page on a large rope, 1936. Plate Four 1908 Demonstration: Voice of the North. Page 98 Plate Five 1908 Demonstration: Chinese on British Ships. Page 99 Plate Six To the Poor House Page 100 Plate Seven The Language Test Page 101 Plate Eight Lascars Page 110 Plate Nine Bengalen: At prayer on deck, 1910. Page 128 Plate Ten A Goan altar dedicated to St Francis Xavier Page 129 on board the P&O liner 'Strathallen', 1938. List of Abbreviations IOR: India Office Records, British Library. IW M : Imperial War Museum, London. IW W : Industrial Workers of the World. MOL: Museum of London. MRC: Modern Records Centre, University of Warwick. NAI: National Archives of India, New Delhi. N M M : National Maritime Museum, Greenwich. P&O: Peninsula and Oriental Steam Navigation Company. RCU: Royal Commission on Labour in India. TNA: The National Archives, London. Glossary Articles of Agreement: Contract between the seamen and Captain and Master of the Ship. Set out wage rates and conditions of employment. Belaying Pin: A nautical instrument traditionally used to secure lines or on square rigged ships. A solid metal or wooden bar with a curved top portion and cylindrical bottom part. Bhandary: Cook. Cassab: Crew member in charge of the deck stores. Donkeyman: Crew member in charge of the operation and maintenance of auxiliary machinery such as generators, pumps and the "donkey" steam boiler - a boiler used to provide steam to deck machinery when the main boiler was shut down, for example when in port. Fireman: A member of the engine room department responsible for shovelling coal into the boilers and maintaining the fires.