Water for “Food” or Water for “Drink”? Political Ecology of Water Conflict in Rural Java Indonesia eingereicht von Yosafat Hermawan Trinugraha Betreuung: Univ. Prof. Dr. Martin Coy (Institut für Geographie,Innsbruck) Univ.-Prof. Dipl.-Ing. Dr. Markus Schermer (Institut für Soziologie, Innsbruck) Dissertation Eingereicht im Rahmen des Doktoratstudium Geographie Fakultät für Geo‐ und Atmosphärenwissenschaften An der Leopold‐Franzens – Universität Innsbruck Innsbruck 2019 i ii Eidesstattliche Erklärung Ich erkläre hiermit an Eides Statt durch meine eigenhändige Unterschrift, dass ich die vorliegende Arbeit selbständig verfasst und keine anderen als die angegebenen Quellen und Hilfsmittel verwendet habe. Alle Stellen, die wörtlich oder inhaltlich den angegebenen Quellen entnommen wurden, sind als solche kenntlich gemacht. Die vorliegende Arbeit wurde bisher in gleicher oder ähnlicher Form noch nicht als Dissertation eingereicht. Innsbruck, am .06. 2019 Datum Unterschrift iii iv TABLE OF CONTENT Table of Content v List of Boxes x List of Figure xi List of Map xiii List of Table xiv Acknowledgment xvii Zusammenfassung xxi Summary xxv CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1 1.1. Background 1 1.2. Research Question and Objective 8 1.3. Research Method 10 1.4. Structure of The Thesis 11 CHAPTER 2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 13 2.1. The Concept of Nature in Geography 13 2.2. Political Ecology, Commodification, and 17 Environmental Conflict 2.3. Waterscape and Hydrosocial cycle 21 2.4. Water Governance 27 2.5. Summary 33 CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH METHOD 34 3.1. Data Collection Method 35 3.1.1. Secondary Data 35 3.1.2. Primary Data 36 v 3.1.2.1.Interview 36 3.1.2.2.Observation 40 3.1.2.3.Focus Group Discussion 40 3.2. Research Questions and Data Collection 42 Method 3.3. Data Analysis 44 CHAPTER 4 DESCRIPTION OF RESEARCH AREA 46 4.1 Some Historical Aspect of Klaten Regency 46 4.1.1 Vorstenlanden: Klaten in the 46 Colonial Period 4.1.2 Bureaucracy 50 4.1.3 After the Revolution/Independence 52 4.1.4. The Period of New Order and 54 Reformation 4.2. Actual/Recent Condition of Klaten Regency 55 4.2.1. Geographic Condition 55 4.2.2. Precipitation 56 4.2.3. Land Use 58 4.2.3.1. Agricultural Land 60 4.2.3.1.1. Irrigation 64 4.2.3.2. Non-Agricultural Land 67 4.2.4. Administrative Region 68 4.2.5. Population 72 4.2.5.1. Composition 72 4.2.5.2. Growth 74 4.2.5.3. Density 75 4.2.5.4. Employment 77 4.2.5.5. Declining Work in the 79 vi Agriculture Sector 4.2.6. Economy and Poverty 82 4.2.7. Overview of Research Site 84 4.2.7.1. Polanharjo Sub-district 85 4.2.7.2. Juwiring Sub-district 86 4.3. Summary 87 CHAPTER 5 THE DYNAMICS OF WATER RESOURCES 89 POLICY IN INDONESIA 5.1. Global Context 89 5.2. Water Resources Policy in Indonesia 91 5.2.1. Colonial Period: The First 93 Generation 5.2.2. The Development of Water 98 Resources Management:The Second Generation 5.2.3. The Third Generation of Water 102 Resources Development: Law No.7/2004 5.2.3.1. The Background of the 102 Emergence of Law No.7/2004 5.2.3.2. The Content Outline of 106 Law No.7/2004 5.2.3.3. Criticism and Resistance 111 to Law No.7/2004 5.2.4. The Phenomenon of Bottled Water 120 in Indonesia: Development and Regulation vii 5.2.5. After the cancellation of Water 126 Resources Law No.7/2004 5.3. Summary 126 CHAPTER 6 CONFLICT AND COMMODIFICATION OF 128 WATER IN KLATEN 6.1. Competing for the Access of Water Spring 128 6.2. Actors in Water Conflict 140 6.2.1. Government 140 6.2.2 Companies 146 6.2.3. Local NGOs and CBOs 150 (Community-Based Organizations) 6.2.4. Farmer and Villager 152 6.2.5. University/Research Institution 154 6.3. Types and Chronological of Water Conflict 155 in Klaten 6.3.1. The Conflict between Farmers and 155 the Bottled Water Corporation 6.3.2. Conflicts between Klaten Regency 168 Government and Surakarta City Government 6.4. The Power Relations of Actors 172 6.4.1. The Relation between Corporations, 172 Local Government, University, and Farmers 6.4.2. The Power Relation between 185 Surakarta Government and Klaten Government 6.4.3. Local NGO: Between Corporation 187 viii and Community 6.5. The Hydrosocial Cycle and Contested 198 Waterscape in Klaten 6.6. Perceptions and Expectation toward the 206 New Water Resource Law 6.7. Water for Food or Water for Drink? 211 6.8. Summary 216 CHAPTER 7 CONCLUSION 218 REFERENCES 223 ix LIST OF BOXES Box 5.1. Article 16 of Water Resources Law No.7/2004 142 Box 5.2. Article 17 of Water Resources Law No.7/2004 143 x LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1.1 Water Stress by Country 3 Figure 2.1. Contemporary Geography and Study of Nature 14 Figure 2.2. The Study of ‘nature’ within and between 15 Geography’s Three Main Branches Figure 2.3. Theoretical Framework 32 Figure 4.1. Rainfall in Klaten 57 Figure 4.2. Agriculture Land in Klaten (in Ha) 62 Figure 4.3. Wetland Based on Irrigation Types in Klaten (in 65 Ha) Figure 4.4. Land Use Change in Klaten 1987-2017 67 Figure 4.5. Land Use Change from Rice Field to Settlement 68 in Klaten Figure 4.6. Population Pyramid of Klaten Regency 73 Figure 4.7. Population Growth in Klaten 1970-2010 74 Figure 4.8. Economic Structure of Klaten Regency (%) 82 Figure 5.1. The Growth of Bottled Water in Indonesia 121 Figure 5.2. Percentage of Household by Drinking Water 122 Sources Figure 6.1. Umbul Sigedang in Ponggok Village 134 Figure 6.2. The Plant of PT TI Danone in Wangen Village 157 Figure 6.3. Demonstration by Villagers in 2014 164 Figure 6.4. Ingas Spring/Cokro Tulung in Tulung Sub- 171 district Figure 6.5. Umbul Ponggok Becomes a Local Tourist 178 Destination Figure 6.6. Downstream farmers use shallow dug wells for 180 irrigation during dry season xi Figure 6.7. Bag Products from Plastic Waste Recycling 195 Activities of PT TI's CSR Figure 6.8. Actors in Water Conflict in Klaten 197 Figure 6.9. Waterscape and Hydrosocial in Klaten 202 Figure 6.10. The Damaged Situation of Secondary Irrigation 206 Network in Juwiring Sub-district xii LIST OF MAPS Map 4.1. Vorstenlanden in 1921 47 Map 4.2. Land Use in Klaten 61 Map 4.3. Administrative and Research Area Map of 71 Klaten Regency Map 4.4. Population Density of Klaten 76 Map 6.1. Some of The Big Springs in Polanharjo and 133 Tulung Sub-districts Map 6.2. PT TI Danone’s Bottled Water Factories in 147 Indonesia xiii LIST OF TABLES Table 1.1. Countries with The Bigest Actual Renewable 2 Freshwater Resources Table 1.2. Indonesian Water Balance in The 2003 and 2020 4 Dry Season Table 2.1. Five Theses in Political Ecology 18 Table 3.1. Informants List 38 Table 3.2. The Data Collection Method 43 Table 4.1. The number of Sugar factory in Surakarta 49 Residency in 1920 Table 4.2. Socio-Economic Stratification of Klaten in 1960s 54 Table 4.3. Annual Rainfall in Klaten 58 Table 4.4. Land Use in Klaten (Ha) 59 Table 4.5. Agricultural Products of Several Food Crops in 63 Klaten Table 4.6. Number of Irrigation Area based on the 66 responsibility of authority level in Klaten Table 4.7. Population aged 15 years and above who works 78 based on gender and main employment in Klaten Table 4.8. Number of Agricultural Household and 80 Agricultural Company in Klaten Table 4.9. Poverty Rate of Klaten Regency 84 Table 5.1. Dynamics of Development and Management of 94 water resources (1850-1950) Table 5.2. Second Generation of Water Resources 102 Development and Management (1950-1998) Table 5.3. The Outline of Water Law No.7/2004 107 Table 5.4. The Comparison between Water Law No.11/1974 108 xiv and Water Law No.7/2004 Table 5.5. The Chronology of Judicial Review of Water Law 113 No.7/2004 in the Constitutional Court Table 5.6. The Definition of Water Use Rights in Water Law 116 No.7/2004 Table 6.1. The Distribution of Spring per Sub-district in 129 Klaten Table 6.2. The Biggest Springs in Klaten 130 Table 6.3. Regencies and Cities with Medium and High 137 Water’s Deficit In Central Java Province Table 6.4. Regencies/Cities in Central Java that Experience 139 Drinking Water Deficit (prediction) Table 6.5. Government Actors Related to Water Conflict in 144 Klaten Table 6.6. Summary of Conflict Between Farmers/Villagers 167 and PT TI Table 6.7. The Raw Water Source of PDAM Surakarta 169 Table 6.8. Contribution of PT.TI to Klaten Regency (in 175 Rupiah) 2005-2009 xv xvi ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I am feeling grateful for the completion of this dissertation. The more than six-year experience of doctoral study is not an easy one, but it sure feels wonderful when the experience finally ends and passes. The invaluable experience during my doctoral study is not only regarding the writing process of dissertation, but also the invaluable experience during my study in Innsbruck. Beautiful cities, comfortable learning environment, and people who are always appreciative and friendly are a few things that I will remember.