You Can’t Have Black Power without Green Power: The Black Economic Union DISSERTATION Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University By Robert Anthony Bennett III Graduate Program in History The Ohio State University 2013 Dissertation Committee: Leslie Marie Alexander, Advisor Hasan Kwame Jeffries Samuel Russell Hodge Copyright by Robert Anthony Bennett III 2013 Abstract Alongside the call for “Black Power,” which became prominent in the late 1960s, numerous African American scholars and activists also promoted “Green Power;” the belief that Blacks needed to become involved in the economic infrastructure of America in order to improve their lives and their communities. This dissertation will add to the historical discourse on the Civil Rights/Black Power era, by exploring a lesser-known Black political strategy; namely, the endorsement of capitalism as a means of Black liberation. This study focuses on the Negro Industrial and Economic Union (NIEU), later renamed the Black Economic Union (BEU), which was founded in the 1966. The BEU was a body of African American professional athletes who had three objectives: to use the finances of African Americans collectively for the benefit of all, to assemble loans with special attention to the interest rates for Blacks in business and industry, and to establish clinics and workshops that would provide guidance and education centers for African American youth. Although economic empowerment did not initially appear as threatening as other forms of Black Nationalism that were circulating during this era, the BEU ultimately found itself at the center of a political and media firestorm. The organization was especially contentious because it was composed of high-profile athletes who supported controversial people such as Muhammad Ali, and advocated for an economic strategy for racial advancement. Through the use of periodicals, organizational documents, and oral interviews, the project provides an account of the BEU, examining ii how African American athletes organized to improve Black communities throughout the United States during a period of great political and economic strife; actions which brought criticism from the Black community and scrutiny from the United States federal government. iii Dedication This work is dedicated to the members of the Black Economic Union who worked for the betterment of themselves and their communities when the validation from others was never the objective. To my cousin Harry Weaver III who demonstrated one must be “harder” than a hard situation. For Alice Bennett and Rosetta and Walter Brame Sr. I wish you all could be here to witness me walk across the stage. iv Acknowledgments When I entered The Ohio State University in 2004, I had two research foci at the time: the fancy girl trade in 19th century New Orleans, and an autobiography on African American civil rights leader Hosea Williams. I chose the former as the basis of my research the first four years of my graduate experience. However, as I completed my master’s thesis and finished my PhD candidacy exams, my interest in the topic waned. Through a chance conversation with OSU alum Leonard N. Moore, I was convinced I needed to explore my passion of activism and Black male professional athletes. Yet convincing my advisor, Leslie Marie Alexander of my interest to change not only my topic but also time period was not easy. Nevertheless, you did not try to deter me from my leanings. During that period of my life, support and patience was important and she provided it unwaveringly. Overall, I owe a huge debt. You served as a leader and friend through the muddy waters of academia. When I wanted to give up and walk away from graduate school, you listened and encouraged me to fight through the doubt. While I wanted to rush this process she also helped me understand through numerous ways that I could not treat this topic in that manner. While the topic may not have been in the realm of 19th century history, I am truly grateful for your willingness to continue to serve as my advisor and read through numerous drafts of the dissertation. For that I will always be v appreciative. The type of commitment you have shown to me as a graduate student is one I hope to replicate as an academic. Hasan Kwame Jeffries, my Morehouse brethren, who while I have known over a decade, never took it light on me. I am truly indebted to his influence and guidance provided as I matriculated through The Ohio State University. You helped me keep a great perspective on the usefulness of the academy. While it has been a true pleasure to know you as an academic, observing you as a father has been a true joy. The balance of family life, academics, and activism is truly admirable. I have learned a great deal from you over the years and will always cherish the plentiful academic and life lessons you have taught me. Samuel Russell Hodge helped solidify my focus on athletics and its place within African American communities, as well as the numerous links between Black people and sports. I am also truly thankful for the publication opportunities. For you to give me the opportunity to undergo the rigors of conducting meaningful research was an enriching experience. The dissertation process has not been easy, but you helped me see it was possible if I put the necessary effort into my work. Most of all, thank you for promoting a healthy lifestyle as an academic. I still marvel at what a fifty-year old could do on the basketball court. Although you made it known my repayment will suffice by my walking at graduation, I recognize my debt is much greater. Thank you for the assistance over the years. James Luther Moore III provided me the opportunity to work at the Todd Anthony Bell National Resource Center on the African American Male (BNRC). During vi my time here, we have had hundreds of conversations, both academic and personal, which helped shape my outlook on life. Most significantly, thank you for your patience and for being a friend with whom I could discuss my many frustrations and joys. I will always be open for advice, a great discussion, or just a good laugh. Gratitude must be given to the BNRC staff. Edie Waugh and Tai Cornute served as readers of early drafts. For those efforts I am truly grateful. Many thanks also to Todd Suddeth. David Graham with the Student Athlete Support Services Office (SASSO) provided me the chance to work with student-athletes. For that opportunity and experience I am thankful. There are numerous professors and scholars who have contributed to my growth in some fashion. They are: Marcellus Barksdale, Yosef ben-Jochanan, Kevin Boyle, John Henrik Clarke, N. Jeremi Duru, Lamont Flowers, Asa Hilliard, Alton Hornsby, Leonard Jeffries, Valerie B. Lee, Leonard N. Moore, Margaret Newell, Charles K. Ross, Randolph Roth, Akinyele Umoja, Anne Watts, James Young, Kurt Young, and Judy Wu. A chance phone call to the Fritz Pollard Alliance in 2010 set this study in motion. John Wooten’s willingness to talk to me about my project led to one of the most eventful times in my life as a scholar. It led to a conversation with Jim Brown, which resulted in numerous conversations over two years with him and other members of the Black Economic Union who provided insight about their involvement with the organization. They are: Walter Beach III, Jim Brown, A. Deane Buchanan, Brady Keys, Curtis McClinton, Bobby Mitchell, Brigman Owens, Spencer Jourdain, Sidney Williams, and John Wooten. It is my hope that I have done justice to capturing aspects of your lives and vii many contributions. This study would not have been possible without your honesty and ability to dig deep into your historical memory. Thank you all for the countless telephone conversations. Many thanks must also be given to Monique Brown, Davonne McClinton, and Terri Mitchell for their assistance with this project. Special gratitude must also be given to Sababa Akili who was able to provide perspective to the Union’s early years. His personal history is worth historical study. It is my hope we can get your story documented. Much of the primary source material for this work was due to the contributions of several people. They include: the staff at the Case Western Reserve Historical Society, the Cleveland Public Library, the Kansas City Public Library, Phyllis Andrews at the University of Rochester Libraries, Rare Books & Special Collections in Rush Rhees Library, Branson Wright with the Cleveland Plain Dealer, Kevin Carroll with ProQuest, and David Lincove at The Ohio State University. There have also been many others who have provided support throughout my academic career: the Association for African American Life and History (ASALH), the Black Graduate and Professional Student Caucus (BGPSC), the Department of History at OSU, the National Council for Black Studies (NCBS), the North American Society for Sport History (NASSH), and the Office of Diversity and Inclusion (ODI), and the Student Athlete Support Services Office (SASSO). There are a wealth of people who provided encouragement throughout this process: Shakeer Abdullah, Mike Alarid, Greg Alfred, Joseph Amos, Adowa Asante, Curtis Austin, Jim Bach, Ennise and Carlton Bell, Ghanasyam Bey, Dexter Blackman, viii Desmond Bourgeois, Vincent Briley, Ka’Nea Brooks, Chris Burton, Tamara Butler, Whitney and Kwame Christian, Tayo Clyburn, Frankie G. Collins, Martinique Cornute (children Amaia and Machai), Morris Council III, Dan, Cheryl and David Cramer, Nyron Crawford, Melissa Crum, Patricia Cunningham II, Adrienne Dixson, Chigo Ekeke, Britney and Phil Farmer, Dr. Jennifer Faison-Hodge (and daughter Samantha Mahogany), Jelani Favors, Delia Fernandez, Liselli Fitzpatrick, V.