ARCHITECTURE IN THE ERA OF TERROR: DESIGN AND PERCEPTION OF SECURITY IN TWO SOCIETIES A Dissertation by GALI ZILBERSHTEIN Submitted to the Office of Graduate Studies of Texas A&M University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY May 2009 Major Subject: Architecture ARCHITECTURE IN THE ERA OF TERROR: DESIGN AND PERCEPTION OF SECURITY IN TWO SOCIETIES A Dissertation by GALI ZILBERSHTEIN Submitted to the Office of Graduate Studies of Texas A&M University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Approved by: Chair of Committee, Andrew D Seidel Committee Members, John O Greer Michael K Lindell Roger S Ulrich Head of Department, Glen Mills May 2009 Major Subject: Architecture iii ABSTRACT Architecture in the Era of Terror: Design and Perception of Security in Two Societies. (May 2009) Gali Zilbershtein, B. Arch., Technion - Israel Institute of Technology Chair of Advisory Committee: Dr. Andrew D Seidel This dissertation falls in the realm of environmental behavior and focuses on the role of the built environment in influencing responses to threats to personal security associated with terrorism. The research integrates pertinent knowledge from psychology, architecture and security/terrorism into a cohesive conceptual framework. Based on the conceptual framework, this work examined the effects of levels of terrorism threat (high vs. low) on people who face public buildings (city hall or shopping mall) that vary in their façade and entrance designs (solid exterior vs. glass façade with/without designed vs. temporary access control security measures). The research was conducted in two societies that are different in their experience with terrorism (Israel and Texas). The effects were measured along four dimensions: how much the issue of terrorism threat is on a person’s mind, how safe and how anxious the individual feels, and how likely he/she is to use the building. The investigation consisted of three quasi-experiments and a pretest survey and employed a computer-based web driven platform. A total of 1071 undergraduate students from College Station, Texas and Tel Aviv, Israel participated in these studies. iv The results illustrate the predominance of the levels of threat of terrorism in influencing all the examined security-related responses. The characteristics of buildings affected those responses to some extent. Differences between the two societies were found mainly in relation to the building-uses. Participants of the two societies responded similarly to the design elements of buildings. In conditions of low threat of terrorism participants from both societies had a higher sense of security when they were exposed to a glass façade compared to a solid concrete façade. In high terrorism threat, participants from both societies felt safer, and were more inclined to use a building with a solid façade. However, when access control security measures were visible to participants in the approach to the building (regardless of their design), both façade designs elicited a similar sense of security, while the propensity to enter the building was higher towards a glass façade. The study concludes with a discussion of the implications of the results for architectural design. v DEDICATION This dissertation is dedicated to my family and friends – near and far, old and new – who have supported me throughout this incredible journey. To my parents, Ora and Yair, for 34 years of caring love, hard work and devotion, and their commitment to helping me reach all of my dreams. To Anat and Nehemia for opening their home and hearts to me, for keeping me focused and carrying me through this process. To my husband, Uri, for his love and belief, and for sharing with me his spark and energy. To my daughter, Maya, my heart. vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank my committee chair, Dr. Andrew Seidel, for his guidance, support and friendship. Dr. Seidel had continuously challenged me throughout the course of this research to achieve a productive and valid scholarly work. He has made this an unforgettable endeavor for me. I thank him for teaching me valuable lessons and I look forward to collaborating with him on future projects. I thank all my committee members for their time and assistance. Dr. Michael Lindell for his rigorous academic input, Dr. Roger Ulrich for sharing his knowledge and research experience, and Prof. John Greer for contributing real-world understanding and supporting my work since day one. I would like to thank the Department of Architecture and the College of Architecture at Texas A&M University for their financial support during my years at the university. The assistantships and travel awards that I received helped me maintain a wonderful life in College Station and allowed me to present my research at different conferences around the world. I want to give special thanks to the 2003-2004 William Wayne Caudill Research Fellowship committee for honoring me with their fellowship, the Department of Architecture for awarding me with the Best Overall Project Award at the 2003 Graduate Research Student Symposium, and The Melbern G. Glasscock Center for Humanities at Texas A&M University for awarding me with their Research Travel Grant. vii I would like to extend my gratitude to all of my friends and colleagues at the College of Architecture for making my time at Texas A&M University a great experience. I would like to thank Prof. George Mann for inviting me to College Station and opening the door to a new life. A special thanks goes to Prof. Tom Regan for taking me under his wing. I am grateful for his trust. Working with Prof. Regan has advanced my skills and knowledge, and made my days at Texas A&M University interesting, diverse and enjoyable. My love and appreciation goes to all of my family and friends in Israel and in the USA. I would like to thank them for being my well of aspiration and giving me fortitude. The continuous connection to them has recharged my emotional, mental and spiritual batteries often. I thank my parents, Ora and Yair, from the bottom of my heart, for their love and support. It is their dedication, hard work and encouragement that have made me into who I am, and brought me to where I am today. I will always cherish their wise advice at the crossroads of my life and their unconditional support, even when I chose the road less traveled. I hope to continue in their footsteps and provide the same support for my family. I would like to thank my brother Itai, his wife Tami, their children, and my brother Shay for their continuous support. I am grateful for their love and devotion and thank them for providing me with the relief I needed at times. I want to extend my thanks to all of my aunts, uncles, and cousins who kept in touch despite the distance. viii My deepest gratitude goes to the extended Geva family, as they not only made College Station feel like home to me, but were central to the successful completion of this dissertation. I thank Anat and Nehemia for accepting me as their own. I want to thank and recognize them for being my counselors and guides and for assisting me on so many different levels. Without their support this dissertation would have never been completed. I am forever in their debt. I want to thank Roni and Rick for their love and friendship, and Roni for her assistance in proofreading some of my writings. I would like to thank my husband, Uri, for his love, his patience and his unconditional support. His belief in me throughout the course of this research has kept me going. I thank him for lifting up my spirit when it was down, devoting his time and energy to providing me with the time I needed on nights and weekends, and for being the best father to Maya. Finally, I thank Maya, my daughter, for brightening my days and bringing a healthy perspective to life. ix TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ABSTRACT.............................................................................................................. iii DEDICATION .......................................................................................................... v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...................................................................................... vi TABLE OF CONTENTS.......................................................................................... ix LIST OF FIGURES................................................................................................... xi LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................... xiv CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION....................................................................................... 1 1.1 The Research Objective ................................................................. 6 1.2 Significance of the Research.......................................................... 6 1.3 Structure of the Dissertation........................................................... 9 II LITERATURE REVIEW: THE THREAT OF TERRORISM, THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT AND THE END USERS.......................... 12 2.1 Human Perception, Cognition and Consequential Behavior in Relation to the Built Environment and Issues of Security ......... 15 2.2 Terrorism: Assessing the Threat to the Built Environment and to the End Users....................................................................... 31 2.3 The Built Environment as a Response to the Threat...................... 41 2.4 Summary .......................................................................................