DRYLAND CONSERVATION AREAS, INDIGENOUS PEOPLE, LIVELIHOODS AND NATURAL RESOURCE VALUES IN SOUTH AFRICA. THE CASE OF KGALAGADI TRANSFRONTIER PARK GLADMAN THONDHLANA A THESIS SUBMITTED IN FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS OF A PHD IN SCIENCE DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE FACULTY OF SCIENCE RHODES UNIVERSITY NOVEMBER 2011 ABSTRACT Contemporary conservation and development understanding in both policy and academic circles espouses that natural resources have a significant contribution to the livelihoods of local people and that knowledge of this can better foster conservation policies that are consistent with livelihood and ecological needs. This thesis is based on research conducted in the southern Kalahari region, South Africa among the San and Mier communities bordering Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park. It looks at the importance of natural resources to the San and Mier community groups and ascertains the extent of resource use and its value within broader livelihood portfolios. It also focuses on the cultural values of natural resources and interactions among institutions and actors and how these shape natural resource governance and livelihood outcomes. Overall, natural resources represent an important livelihood source contributing up to 32 % and 9 % of the total income of the San and Mier respectively or up to 46 % and 23 % if livestock incomes are included. However, the dependence on, diversification patterns and distribution of natural resource income vary substantially between and within the two communities. With regards to the cultural values attached to natural resources by the San and Mier, the findings show that these arise from an incredibly diverse and sometimes conflicting array of values that punctuate the two communities’ way of life and they are inextricably linked to resource use. Lastly, governance of natural resources in the co-managed Park and community- managed resettlement farms is characterised by complex institutional arrangements, compounded by the existence of multiple actors that have multiple and sometimes conflicting objectives – as shaped by different meanings and interpretations of natural resources. Heightened inter- and intra-community conflicts are common, notably resource use conflicts between the San and Mier and between the San ‘modernist’ and ‘traditionalist’ groups. This demonstrates that the communities’ livelihood dynamics in general and the dependence on natural resources in particular, are closely linked with ecological, economic and social factors including history, culture and present livelihood needs. By exploring the social-environment interactions, the study highlights the complexities and diversity of resource use for livelihoods that should be taken into consideration for both conservation and development policy interventions and research. The main argument of the study is that the contribution of natural resources to local livelihood portfolios in co- and community-managed areas, can be better understood through a consideration of cultural dynamics and institutional arrangements since these condition natural resource access, value and use. i DECLARATION I, Gladman Thondhlana hereby declare that this thesis is my own original work, has not been submitted for any degree or examination at any other university, and that the sources I have used have been fully acknowledged by complete references. This thesis is submitted in fulfilment of a PhD in Environmental Science in the Faculty of Science at Rhodes University, South Africa. Signature: ____________________________ Date: _______________________ ii TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT .............................................................................................................................. i DECLARATION ....................................................................................................................... ii TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................................ iii LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................................... vii LIST OF FIGURES .................................................................................................................. viii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ......................................................................................................... ix PART 1: BACKGROUND, RESEARCH OVERVIEW AND METHODS ................................. 1 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION: NATURAL RESOURCES, LIVELIHOODS AND PROTECTED AREAS .. 1 1.1 INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................................... 1 1.2RESEARCH GAPS AND PROBLEMS IN STUDIES LINKING CONSERVATION, LIVELIHOODS AND DEVELOPMENT................................................................................................................................ 3 1.3 KGALAGADI TRANSFRONTIER PARK (KTP) AND THE LOCAL COMMUNITIES .................... 5 1.4 AIMS AND KEY QUESTIONS UNDERLYING THE STUDY ............................................................ 6 1.5 RESEARCH HYPOTHESES.................................................................................................................. 7 1.6 THESIS OUTLINE ................................................................................................................................. 8 CHAPTER 2: THEORETICAL AND CONCEPTUAL CONTEXT: PARKS, CONSERVATION AND LIVELIHOODS - FROM A GLOBAL TO A LOCAL PERSPECTIVE .................................................... 9 2.1 INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................................... 9 2.2 CONSERVATION AND DEVELOPMENT: AN INTERNATIONAL CONTEXT .............................. 9 2.2.1 Key strands and switches in conservation thinking ............................................................................. 9 2.2.2 Transfrontier Parks (TFPs) and Contract Parks ................................................................................. 13 2.2.3 Conservation beyond park fences ...................................................................................................... 15 2.2.4 Culture, institutional dynamics and natural resource governance...................................................... 16 2.3 DRYLAND ECOSYSTEMS AND RURAL LIVELIHOODS ............................................................. 19 2.4 A SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT ........................................................................................................ 20 2.4.1 Conservation policy ........................................................................................................................... 20 2.4.2 South African policy context on sustainable use in parks and surrounding landscapes .................... 21 2.4.3 Drylands of South Africa ................................................................................................................... 22 2.4.4 Land Reform in South Africa............................................................................................................. 23 2.4.5 Land reform and poverty alleviation .................................................................................................. 24 CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH APPROACH, CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORKS AND METHODS ................ 26 3.1 INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................................. 26 3.2 CONTEXTUALISING VALUATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES IN LIVELIHOOD RESEARCH .................................................................................................................................................................... 27 3.2.1 Natural resource valuation ............................................................................................................... 27 3.2.1.1 Understanding value ....................................................................................................................... 27 3.2.1.2 Economic valuation ........................................................................................................................ 28 3.2.1.3 Criticism of economic valuation 29 3.2.2 TEV framework for determining economic value ............................................................................. 32 3.2.3 The Sustainable Livelihoods Framework (SLF) ................................................................................ 35 3.2.4 Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA) framework ...................................................................... 37 3.2.4.1 MA framework ................................................................................................................................ 38 iii 3.3 CONCEPTUALISING INSTITUTIONS AND GOVERNANCE OF NATURAL RESOURCES ...... 39 3.3.1 Understanding institutions ................................................................................................................. 39 3.3.2 Understanding governance of natural resources ................................................................................ 41 3.3.3 The Institutional Analysis and Development (IAD) framework ........................................................ 42 3.4 IMPORTANCE OF CONTEXT IN NATURAL RESOURCES AND LIVELIHOOD STUDIES ....... 44 3.5 OVERVIEW OF METHODS EMPLOYED IN THIS STUDY ............................................................ 48 3.6 LIMITATIONS AND ASSUMPTIONS