Scripting the Unscripted: Gender and Sexual Orientation in Strategy-Genre Reality Television by L. Elizabeth Zollner A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of English College of Arts and Sciences University of South Florida Major Professor: Debra L. Jacobs, Ph.D. Gary A. Olson, Ph.D. Laura L. Runge, Ph.D. Meredith Zoetewey, Ph.D. Date of Approval: November 14, 2008 Keywords: hegemony, capitalism, popular culture, rhetoric, audience © Copyright 2008, L. Elizabeth Zollner Dedication In loving memory of my mother Gertrude Pauline Loesche-Zollner In honor of my spouse Joyce Ann Halstrom With special love and gratitude to J, Jacko, Teddy, Livvie, Nick, Stella and Ollie With many thanks to Debra Jacobs for her wisdom, guidance and love In the hope that others might watch reality television with a critical eye and mind Table of Contents Abstract iii Chapter 1 – The Genre Strategy of Competition Reality TV 1 The Genre and Its Historical Moment(s) 1 Reality TV Meets Game Show 10 Strategy-Genre Reality TV 13 The Participants 18 The Games 29 The Settings 31 Internal Challenges 35 Artifacts 41 Contestants and Viewers, Again 48 Chapter 2 – Marking Players: Gender/Sexual Orientation 51 Identity Markers 56 Gender and Sexual Orientation Examined 59 Some Reality Television Research on Gender 64 Players’ Views of Their Own Gender Identity: Vanuatu 68 Players’ Views of Their Own Gender Identity: Exile Island 76 Players’ Views of One Another’s Gender Identity: Vanuatu 82 Players’ Views of One Another’s Gender Identity: Exile Island 90 Chapter 3 – Expert Amateur Reviewers 97 The Role and Work of Expert Amateur Reviewers 97 Expert Amateur Reviewers of Vanuatu 100 i Expert Amateur Reviewers of Exile Island 130 Chapter 4 – Fan and Viewer Posting 149 The Role and Work of Fans and Viewers 149 Fan and Viewer Posts on Vanuatu 154 Yahoo! Groups 154 Television Without Pity 175 Fan and Viewer Posts on Exile Island 195 Yahoo! Groups 195 Television Without Pity 208 Chapter 5 – Conclusion: Rhetorical Oatmeal and Other Comfort Food 226 Works Cited 246 About the author 281 ` ii Scripting the Unscripted: Gender and Sexual Orientation in Strategy-Genre Reality Television L. Elizabeth Zollner ABSTRACT Since 2000, there has been an explosion of “reality,” or unscripted, television shows in a variety of formats. The series in which new societies are created in isolation appeared almost immediately to be influenced by certain identity constructs, particularly gender and sexual orientation. Audiences came to these shows with definite expectations already in place. I intend in this study to determine why this is so and what those expectations are. Survivor, the germinal presentation of this genre, has as its motto “Outwit, Outplay, Outlast.” However, as the show has developed through many iterations, the ability to literally survive in a hostile environment has been eclipsed by what is now called “the social game” by contestant, viewers, producers and observers of the phenomenon. Because of cultural stereotypes about gender, amateur review writers, along with regular viewers who frequent internet communications spaces, began to remark on how women win (when they do) compared to how men win, and to comment upon the various player behaviors and strategies in terms of sexual orientation, race, age and other constructs. Because I was hooked in the first Survivor series, and subsequently became interested in Big Brother as well, I iii searched for information online and discovered the explosion of discussions. Despite all the other aspects of, and activities in, these games, the large majority of the texts seemed to center upon identity constructs. Although there is a great deal of strategy to observe and discuss, even that was frequently couched in what a viewer could expect of a person of given gender or sexual orientation. It wasn’t long before I began to perceive both the programs and the writing generated by them as texts that could be analyzed in terms of rhetorical appeals. Certain texts which might be expected to demonstrate credibility were ignored in favor of emotional reinforcement. Viewers and reviewers seemed most pleased with, and attributed the most credibility to, those speech acts and behaviors which resonated with their values and beliefs systems, regardless of their effectiveness I found this trend interesting enough, and distressing enough, to examine in depth to learn how people read the texts of strategy-genre reality television. In general, there is a complete lack of critical viewing and no application of logic except by academics and journalists. Average viewers reject whatever does not match their belief system, even if that behavior wins the game. Feelings have eclipsed all else as the standard of credibility and value. I conclude that credibility may only be derived from a text when feelings match viewer values. Of paramount importance in matching these values are the behaviors of the players, in that they must meet expectations in stereotype and tradition, and of course, the gender and sexual orientation of the winner. iv Chapter One The Genre Strategy of Competition Reality TV Introduction Survivor is now airing its 17th iteration, and is planning more, with no end in sight, since it began in the summer of 2000. It reigns supreme as the most successful example of strategy-genre reality television. I am designating as “strategy genre” those reality TV shows that feature a group of contestants whose unscripted activities and competitions throughout the time they live together, isolated from all others, provide weekly entertainment to TV viewers. Removed from their everyday routines and social conditions, the contestants have only their individual wits, talents, and physical abilities to rely on as they negotiate how best to live day to day with one another, making decisions all the while based on their sense of what will give them an advantage against those with whom they negotiate. Forming their own mini society, the contestants continue to dwindle in number as competitions occur that eliminate one or more of them until only one remains. The show title Survivor is thus unsurprisingly apt, and the show is not only the most successful of its kind, but as the first of its kind; it influenced the defining features of the many strategy-genre reality TV shows that followed. Because I am examining what is a popular culture phenomenon, let me briefly take a cursory look at popular culture context selected historical moments and at the show’s point of origin, May 2000. Most people treated the year as the beginning of a new millennium. George W. Bush had recently taken office after 1 his appointment by the Supreme Court following questionable election results. There was still some nervousness about “Y2K,” a predicted electronics and communications disaster that never materialized. The internet had reached its stride with its own vernacular full of abbreviations, which were quickly taken up by text-messaging fans. Cell phones became cameras as well. Vacations continued to be perceived as a frill, while serious people worked 60 hours a week or more. The money they made was often invested in real estate, and more and more people thought they’d give “flipping a house” a try as property values boomed. As late capitalism shifted into overdrive, the rich and poor grew farther and farther apart as the diminished middle class held on in between by its fingernails, gaping in dismay as many technical and manufacturing jobs were shipped overseas. Left behind were the less well-paid service sector jobs, as well as the many menial tasks most white Americans simply will not do. Rushing in to fill the gap came waves of immigrants, many legal, but also many illegal. The Census Bureau reports that 10.4 of the population in 2000 consisted of immigrants, which is more than one of every ten persons (Camarota 1). Further, the Migration Policy Institute reports that in 2000, there were an estimated 8.5 million undocumented immigrants in 2000 (“Immigration Facts”). The ever-growing increase of immigrants continued to contribute to the already strained infrastructure and social systems of the nation to nearly a breaking point. According to the Center for Immigration Studies, the poverty rate of immigrants is 50% higher than US-born citizens and the use of welfare programs is 30-50% 2 higher. The Center even attributes “virtually all of the national increase in public school enrollment over the last two decades” to immigration (Camarota 1-2). And still the notion persisted at the dawn of the 21st century that capitalism works for everyone, and we could all be rich if we would work more hours, staying electronically connected to everyone else, especially at work, every waking moment. Accompanying extra money from working more was extra spending, if not on oneself, then on one’s children. Youth culture benefitted in conspicuous ways from parents’ greater earnings. Young males were still wearing Jenkos several sizes too large at $75 a pair, but $200 Diesels had also entered the picture. Young women, on the other hand, squeezed into less and less, with Bebe’s “Skinny Jeans” averaging around $150 a pair. Even as gas prices continued to climb, reaching around $1.50 per gallon during the summer of 2000—an increase of 25% from the previous summer’s average of $1.17 (Energy Information Administration)—the popularity among teen drivers of the less than fuel efficient SUVs compelled more and more parents to purchase these vehicles for their children, and this despite the warnings from news reports that SUVs are particularly dangerous with new drivers behind the wheel (Stark). Statistical data released by the US Census Bureau for the year 2000 revealed that equality between men and women and between whites and minorities still wasn’t realized in our paychecks.