REFORMS IN TURBULENT TIMES A study on the theory and practice of three irrigation management policy reform models in Mashonaland, Zimbabwe Promotor: Prof. Dr. Linden F. Vincent, hoogleraar in de Irrigatie en waterbouwkunde, Wageningen Universiteit Co-promotor: Dr. Ir. Alex Bolding, postdoc NWO Shifts in Governance programma, Irrigatie en waterbouwkunde, Wageningen Universiteit Samenstelling promotiecommissie: Prof. Dr. Paul Richards, Wageningen Universiteit Dr. Bruce Lankford, University of East Anglia, Norwich, UK Dr. Bill H. Kinsey, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam and University of Zimbabwe Dr. Ruth Meinzen-Dick, International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington D.C., USA Dit onderzoek is uitgevoerd binnen de onderzoeksschool CERES REFORMS IN TURBULENT TIMES A study on the theory and practice of three irrigation management policy reform models in Mashonaland, Zimbabwe Proefschrift ter verkrijging van de graad van doctor op gezag van de rector magnificus, Prof. Dr. M.J. Kropff, in het openbaar te verdedigen op dinsdag 19 december 2006 des namiddags te vier uur in de Aula REFORMS IN TURBULENT TIMES: A STUDY ON THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF THREE IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT POLICY REFORM MODELS IN MASHONALAND, ZIMBABWE. Wageningen UR. Prom./coprom.: Vincent, L.F., Bolding, J.A., - Wageningen: Conrade Zawe, 2006, p. 356 + xviii. ISBN: 90-8504-542-8 Copyright © 2006, by Conrade Zawe, Harare, Zimbabwe DEDICATION If you were here I am sure you would have praised the Lord and talked about it to your friends For you who passed away while I was struggling with the PhD research I assure you I cherish your wise words, some of which are now text to this book Now your wise words to me will be spread to many others the world over: Chidenyere Zawe My father Agnes Zawe My mother Richard Sibangani My father in-law Tongotarisa Zawe My brother Chipo Zawe My sister Musafare Zawe My brother TABLE OF CONTENTS TABLE OF CONTENTS VII LIST OF FIGURES IX LIST OF TABLES IX LIST OF GRAPHS X LIST OF MAPS X LIST OF BOXES X LIST OF PHOTOS XI LIST OF ACRONYMS XII ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS XV 1 INTRODUCTION: IRRIGATION POLICY REFORM MODELS 1 1.1 LAND, WATER AND THE STATE IN ZIMBABWE: SITUATING THE LAND QUESTION 2 1.2 SMALLHOLDER IRRIGATION IN ZIMBABWE: POLITICS, PERFORMANCE AND PROBLEMS 13 1.3 IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT REFORMS: STATE-OF-THE-ART AND CRITIQUE 18 1.4 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK 26 1.5 OUTLINE OF THE THREE POLICY MODELS STUDIED 30 1.6 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES AND QUESTIONS 35 1.7 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 36 1.8 ORGANISATION OF THE THESIS 38 2 THE CONTEXT OF SMALLHOLDER IRRIGATION IN ZIMBABWE 41 2.1 COLONIAL ERA POLICY PROCESS AND EVOLUTION OF SMALLHOLDER IRRIGATION 41 2.2 INDEPENDENCE ERA POLICY PROCESS, POLICY STATEMENTS AND EVOLUTION 45 2.3 SMALLHOLDER IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT AND FINANCE: THE RISE AND DEMISE OF THE IRRIGATION DIVISION OF AGRITEX 51 2.4 IMPACT OF THE THIRD CHIMURENGA ON IRRIGATION DEVELOPMENT IN MASHONALAND WEST PROVINCE 65 2.5 CONCLUSION: IDENTIFIED CONDITIONS OF POSSIBILITY 72 3 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF MUSARURWA SCHEME 75 3.1 THE SETTING 75 3.2 THE GENESIS OF THE MUSARURWA IRRIGATION SCHEME 80 3.3 CRAFTING THE FARMER MANAGED IRRIGATION SCHEME 83 3.4 CONSTRUCTION OF THE IRRIGATION SCHEME 98 3.5 ORGANISATIONAL ARRANGEMENTS FOR TECHNOLOGY USE 101 3.6 CONCLUSION: THE BIRTH OF A COMMUNITY IRRIGATION SCHEME 102 4 THE MUSARURWA WUA MODEL IN PRACTICE 107 4.1 SELECTION OF IRRIGATORS 107 4.2 THE ORGANISATIONAL FRAMEWORK 109 4.3 COPING WITH IRRIGATION TECHNOLOGY 122 vii 4.4 THE STRUGGLE WITH CROP PRODUCTION 130 4.5 CONCLUSIONS 138 5 CRAFTING A CO-OPERATIVE COMPANY AT NEGOMO 145 5.1 THE SETTING: SETTLEMENTS, MARKETS, CLIMATE AND POLITICS 146 5.2 EXPERTS MOULD NEGOMO IRRIGATION SCHEME 150 5.3 EXPERTS IMPLEMENT NEGOMO (FACE TO FACE WITH A LION IN ITS DEN) 157 5.4 CONCLUSION: A RADICAL DONOR-PUSHED EXPERIMENT 173 6 PRACTICE AND OUTCOMES OF THE NEGOMO COMPANY MODEL 179 6.1 PHASE 1: PRICE WATERHOUSE AND THE COMPANY (1996-2000) 179 6.2 PHASE 2: THE NEGOMO CO-OPERATIVE ASSOCIATION (2000-2002) 189 6.3 PHASE 3: EXIT GOVERNMENT AND DONOR, THINGS FALL APART (2003-2005) 196 6.4 STRUGGLING WITH HIGH VALUE CROPS 200 6.5 STRUGGLING WITH PUMPS, PARTS AND UPSTREAM IRRIGATORS 205 6.6 CONCLUSIONS: THE SINKING OF THE TITANIC 212 7 THE EVOLUTION OF USER MANAGED IRRIGATION SCHEMES AT TWO INVADED FARMS 219 7.1 THE SETTING OF CHIFUNDI AND ELMLY PARK IRRIGATION SCHEMES 220 7.2 THE INVASION OF MR EDEN’S FARMS 222 7.3 ESTABLISHMENT OF CHIFUNDI AND ELMLY PARK IRRIGATION SCHEMES 233 7.4 EVOLUTION OF USER MANAGEMENT ORGANISATIONS 243 7.5 CONCLUSION: THE BIRTH OF A NEW IMR MODEL IN THE GARDEN OF EDEN 251 8 THE OPERATIONAL REALITIES AT CHIFUNDI AND ELMLY PARK IRRIGATION SCHEMES 257 8.1 TECHNOLOGY AND ORGANISATIONAL DYNAMICS (CHIFUNDI & ELMLY PARK) 257 8.2 TEAMING UP WITH FORMER COMMERCIAL FARMERS, FARM WORKERS AND AGRO- PROCESSORS AT CHIFUNDI IRRIGATION SCHEME 267 8.3 A COMMERCIAL FARMER BECOMES “GODFATHER” TO ELMLY PARK 276 8.4 CONCLUSIONS 289 9 CONCLUSIONS AND DISCUSSION 295 9.1 THE THREE MODELS, THEIR CHANGING REALITIES AND THE EPILOGUE TO 2006 295 9.2 ELEMENTS TO CONSIDER FROM ACROSS THE STUDY ON POLICY FORMATION DESIGN AND REALITY 303 9.3 CONCEPTUAL IMPLICATIONS FOR DESIGNING OR REDESIGNING IMR: THE SOCIAL EMBEDDEDNESS OF IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT REFORMS 311 9.4 METHODOLOGICAL IMPLICATIONS FOR IMR 313 9.5 POLICIES FOR THE REDRESS OF THE CRITICAL DIMENSIONS OF THE LAND AND WATER IMBALANCES IN ZIMBABWE 314 REFERENCES 319 SUMMARY 333 NEDERLANDSE SAMENVATTING 343 CURRICULUM VITAE 355 viii LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1.1: The conceptual framework 27 Figure 1.2: The reciprocal model of innovation 28 Figure 1.3: The organisational framework of the WUA model 31 Figure 1.4: The organisational framework of the partnership model at Chifundi irrigation scheme 32 Figure 1.5: The organisational framework of the partnership model at Elmly Park 33 Figure 1.6: The organisational framework of the Co-operative Company model 34 Figure 2.1: Policy process during the UDI period 42 Figure 2.2: Policy process post-independence before the ESAP 46 Figure 2.3: Policy process post-independence during ESAP 48 Figure 2.4: The AGRITEX Organogram 56 Figure 2.5: The former Ghost Acre irrigation consortium network 70 Figure 3.1: Proposed participatory irrigation development process in Mashonaland West 83 Figure 3.2: The plot layout for two users irrigating from a single six sprinkler lateral 95 Figure 3.3: A typical drag hose irrigation system 96 Figure 3.4: The organisational framework at the inception of the Musarurwa irrigation scheme 102 Figure 4.1: The Musarurwa riser extension and sprinkler couplings 126 Figure 4.2: Summer crops in two Musarurwa irrigation plots sharing one lateral 131 Figure 5.1: The organisational model for the implementation of Negomo 158 Figure 5.2: The proposed staff establishment of the CSU and AGRITEX in the feasibility report 169 Figure 5.3: The staffing of the CSU created by Price Waterhouse 169 Figure 6.1: The composition and additions to the CSU at the start of the first phase 184 Figure 6.2: The organisational framework of the Negomo Co-operative Association 191 Figure 6.3: Negomo Co-operative Association flow-chart of collection and distribution of funds 193 Figure 6.4: Gate valves and hoist in use at the Negomo pumping station 206 Figure 7.1: WWIRP Credit Facility Web 234 LIST OF TABLES Table 1.1: The colonial instruments used in the occupation and control of Zimbabwe 6 Table 1.2: Land Distribution after Independence 10 Table 1.3: Principal changes enshrined in the Water Act of 1998 12 Table 1.4: Overview of Zimbabwe’s irrigation sector (1999) 14 Table 1.5: Uphoff (1986)’s irrigation management tasks 23 Table 1.6: Some characteristics of the research sites 36 Table 2.1: Succession at AGRITEX, showing the director, period and emphasis 54 Table 2.2: AGRITEX Irrigation projects by source of funding as at July 1990 (Zim $'000) 59 Table 2.3: Public Sector Investment Programme for smallholder irrigation after the land invasions 61 Table 2.4: Summary of the irrigation projects under implementation in Mashonaland West 65 ix Table 2.5: Resettled farmers in Mashonaland West, by district and resettlement model 67 Table 5.1: Mashonaland Central province communal area population densities by district 146 Table 6.1: Cropping pattern at Negomo irrigation scheme (1996-2001) 186 Table 6.2: Negomo irrigation scheme handover project (2000-2005) scheduled activities 190 Table 6.3: Negomo irrigation scheme areas of responsibility matrix 2002 195 Table 6.4: Negomo electricity bills for the year 2000-2001 207 Table 6.5: Negomo irrigation scheme handover programme pump O & M subsidy scheduling 208 Table 7.1: The list of irrigation equipment purchased for Chifundi irrigation scheme 241 Table 7.2: The list of irrigation equipment purchased for Elmly Park irrigation scheme 242 Table 8.1: The Winter Wheat production figures for Chifundi irrigation scheme (2002 to 2004) 269 Table 8.2: The Soyabean production figures for Chifundi (2003 to 2005) 272 Table 8.3: The going Bank Lending Rates in Zimbabwe in May 2003 274 Table 8.4: The wheat production costs for Elmly Park irrigation scheme 277 Table 8.5: The soyabean production costs for Elmly Park irrigation scheme (2003-05) 281 LIST OF GRAPHS Graph 2.1: Donor & government contribution to AGRITEX’s smallholder irrigation programmes 62 Graph 3.1: The Rainfall and Evapotranspiration scenario at Musarurwa irrigation scheme 77 Graph 5.1: Average monthly rainfall and evaporation at Negomo irrigation scheme 149 Graph 6.1: Summary of debts owed to the CSU by blocks as at January 2002 184