SAITvol1 htp/tp 3/5/01 1:43 PM Page 1 VOLUME1 2000 B . C . to A . D . 699 Science and Its Times Understanding the Social Significance of Scientific Discovery SAITvol1 htp/tp 3/5/01 1:43 PM Page 3 VOLUME1 2000 B . C . to A . D . 699 Science and Its Times Understanding the Social Significance of Scientific Discovery Neil Schlager, Editor Josh Lauer, Associate Editor Produced by Schlager Information Group GALE GROUP STAFF Science Amy Loerch Strumolo, Project Coordinator Christine B. Jeryan, Contributing Editor and Its Mark Springer, Editorial Technical Specialist Maria Franklin, Permissions Manager Margaret A. Chamberlain, Permissions Specialist Times Deb Freitas, Permissions Associate Mary Beth Trimper, Production Director Evi Seoud, Assistant Production Manager Stacy L. Melson, Buyer VOLUME1 Cynthia D. Baldwin, Product Design Manager Tracey Rowens, Senior Art Director 2000 B . C . Barbara Yarrow, Graphic Services Manager TO A. D . 699 Randy Bassett, Image Database Supervisor Mike Logusz, Imaging Specialist Pamela A. Reed, Photography Coordinator NEIL SCHLAGER, Editor Leitha Etheridge-Sims, Image Cataloger JOSH LAUER, Associate Editor While every effort has been made to ensure the reliability of the information presented in this publication, Gale Research does not guarantee the accuracy of the data contained herein. Gale accepts no payment for listing, and inclusion in the publication of any organization, agency, institution, publication, service, or individual does not imply endorsement of the edi- tors or publisher. Errors brought to the attention of the publisher and verified to the satisfaction of the publisher will be corrected in future editions. The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI Z39.48-1984. 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ISBN: 0-7876-3933-8 Printed in the United States of America 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Science and its times : understanding the social significance of scientific discovery / Neil Schlager, editor. p.cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-7876-3933-8 (vol. 1 : alk. paper) — ISBN 0-7876-3934-6 (vol. 2 : alk. paper) — ISBN 0-7876-3935-4 (vol. 3 : alk. paper) — ISBN 0-7876-3936-2 (vol. 4 : alk. paper) — ISBN 0-7876-3937-0 (vol. 5 : alk. paper) — ISBN 0-7876-3938-9 (vol. 6 : alk. paper) — ISBN 0-7876-3939-7 (vol. 7 : alk. paper) — ISBN 0-7876-3932-X (set : hardcover) 1. Science—Social aspects—History. I. Schlager, Neil, 1966- Q175.46 .S35 2001 509—dc21 00-037542 SAIT 1 FM 3/6/01 4:52 PM Page v Contents Preface ...................vii Saint Brendan’s Epic Voyage ...........55 Hsüan-tsang Forges a Link Between Advisory Board...............ix China and India ................57 Fa-Hsien Travels Around the Outskirts of Contributors ................xi China, to India and the East Indies......59 Biographical Sketches ................62 Introduction: 2000 B.C. to A.D. 699 . xiii Biographical Mentions ...............84 Bibliography of Primary Sources ..........89 Chronology: 2000 B.C. to A.D. 699 . xvii Life Sciences and Medicine Exploration and Discovery Chronology of Key Events ..............91 Chronology of Key Events ..............1 Overview .......................92 Overview ........................2 Topical Essays Topical Essays Doctors, Drugs, and Death in Hatshepsut’s Expedition to Punt..........4 Ancient Egypt .................94 The Role of the “Sea Peoples” in Acupuncture in China...............99 Transforming History..............8 Herbal Medicine .................101 The Phoenicians: Early Lessons The Hebrew Dietary Laws ...........105 in Economics .................10 Hippocrates and His Legacy ..........108 Persia Expands the Boundaries of Empire, The Philosophy of Greek Medicine.......111 Exploration, and Organization ........13 The Doctrine of the Four Humors .......114 Hanno Sails Down the Coast of West Aristotle and the Founding of Biology .....116 Africa—and Perhaps Even Further ......17 The Origins of Botany ..............119 The History of Herodotus .............20 Ayurvedic Medicine ...............121 Xenophon and the Ten Thousand ........22 The Science of Physiology: Galen’s Ultima Thule, Brettanike, and the Voyage Influence ...................125 of Pytheas of Massalia .............25 The Military Medicine of Ancient Rome....128 Nearchus Discovers a Sea Route from India Hospitals and Treatment Facilities in the to the Arabian Peninsula ...........27 Ancient World ................131 Alexander the Great ................30 Biographical Sketches ...............134 The Silk Road Bridges East and West ......35 Biographical Mentions ...............148 Rome’s Quest for Empire and Its Impact Bibliography of Primary Sources .........152 on Exploration .................40 Caesar and the Gauls ...............44 Aelius Gallus Attempts the Conquest of Arabia— Mathematics and Reaches the Limits of Roman Power ..46 Chronology of Key Events .............155 Roman Technology, Government, and the Overview ......................156 Spread of Early Christianity .........49 Topical Essays Lindisfarne and Iona: Preserving Western Mesopotamian Mathematics ..........158 Civilization in the Dark Ages .........52 The Mathematics of Ancient India .......162 v SCIENCE AND ITS TIMES VOLUME 1 SAIT 1 FM 3/6/01 4:52 PM Page vi Mayan Mathematics ...............164 Technology and Invention Contents Ancient Chinese Mathematics .........166 Chronology of Key Events .............307 2000 B.C. The Moscow and Rhind Papyri .........169 Overview ......................308 to A.D. 699 Early Counting and Computing Tools .....171 Topical Essays The Philosophy of the Pythagoreans ......174 Early Agriculture and the Rise The Birth of Number Theory ..........176 of Civilization ................309 Number Systems .................178 The Domestication of the Horse ........312 The Historical Relationship of Logic and The Domestication of Wheat and Mathematics .................181 Other Crops .................314 The Pyramids of Ancient Egypt ........316 The Three Unsolved Problems of The Rise of Cities ................320 Ancient Greece................182 Triumphs of Ancient Architecture and Art: The Foundations of Geometry: From Thales The Seven Wonders and the Parthenon...322 to Euclid ...................188 Building an Empire and a Legacy: Roman Advances in Algebra ...............191 Engineering .................326 The Development of Trigonometry .......193 Water Management in the Ancient World ...332 Eratosthenes Calculates the Circumference Architecture and Engineering on the of the Earth..................196 Indian Subcontinent .............335 Roman Numerals: Their Origins, Impact, The Impact of Mayan Architecture .......337 and Limitations ...............198 The Great Wall of China ............340 The Origins of the Zero .............201 Cities of Ancient America ............342 The Development of Dyes by the Biographical Sketches ...............203 “Purple People,” the Phoenicians ......346 Biographical Mentions ...............224 Metallurgy through the Ages ..........348 Bibliography of Primary Sources .........231 The Development of Glassmaking in the Ancient World ................351 Lighting the Ancient World...........353 Physical Sciences The Calendar Takes Shape in Mesopotamia ..356 Chronology of Key Events .............235 The First Clocks .................358 Overview ......................236 Slave Labor....................360 Topical Essays Archimedes and the Simple Machines That Moved the World ..............363 Contributions of the Pre-Socratics .......238 The Chinese Invent the Magnetic Compass ..366 Early Greek Matter Theories: The Pre-Socratics Development of Seagoing Vessels in the to the Stoics .................240 Ancient World ................368 Physical Science in India.............245 The Royal Road of Persia ............371 Astrology and Astronomy in the The Building of Canals in the Ancient World ................248 Ancient World ................373 Ancient Scientists Learn about the Planets ...250 Roman Roads: Building, Linking, and Development of Calendars ...........253 Defending the Empire ............375 The Importance of the Eclipse in Writing Preserves Knowledge and Memory ..378 Ancient Society................255 The Development of Writing Materials ....383 Cosmology in the Ancient World ........257 The Development of Libraries in the Ancient World ................387 Geocentrism vs. Heliocentrism: The Development of Block Printing Ancient Disputes ...............259 in China ...................390 Aristotle’s Chemical Theory of Elements The Early History of Cartography .......393 and Substances ................262 Ancient Views on Earth’s