THE GLOBAL ASSESSMENT REPORT ON BIODIVERSITY AND ECOSYSTEM SERVICES 2.2 201 CHAPTER 2.2 STATUS AND TRENDS – NATURE Chapter 2.2 STATUS AND TRENDS 2.2– NATURE 202 THE GLOBAL ASSESSMENT REPORT ON BIODIVERSITY AND ECOSYSTEM SERVICES IPBES GLOBAL ASSESSMENT REPORT ON BIODIVERSITY AND ECOSYSTEM SERVICES CHAPTER 2.2 STATUS AND TRENDS – NATURE Copyright © 2019, Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) DOI: https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.3832005 Part of ISBN: 978-3-947851-20-1 COORDINATING LEAD AUTHORS: Isbell (United States of America), Walter Jetz (Future Earth/ Kazuhito Ichii (Japan), Zsolt Molnár (Hungary), David Obura USA), Kaitlin M. Keegan (United States of America), Alla (Kenya), Andy Purvis (United Kingdom of Great Britain and Khosrovyan (Spain), Holger Kreft (Germany), Peter Laban Northern Ireland), Katherine Willis (United Kingdom of Great (IUCN), Shuaib Lwasa (Uganda), Louise McRae (United Britain and Northern Ireland) Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland), Peter A. Minang (Cameroon), Rose O’Dea (Canada), Nsalambi LEAD AUTHORS: Nkongolo (Democratic Republic of Congo), Kinga Öllerer Nakul Chettri (India), Ehsan Dulloo (Mauritius), Andrew (Hungary), Kirk W. Olson (United States of America), Hendry (United States of America), Bardukh Gabrielyan Bertram Østrup (Denmark), Hannes Palang (Estonia), Owen (Armenia), Julian Gutt (Germany), Ute Jacob (Germany), F. Price (Australia), Jake Rice (Canada), Callum M. Roberts Emre Keskin (Turkey), Aidin Niamir (Germany/Islamic (United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland), Republic of Iran), Bayram Öztürk (Turkey) Sarah Sanderson (Canada), Mahesh Sankaran (India), Hanno Seebens (Germany), Yasuo Takahashi (Japan), Ian FELLOWS: Thompson (Brazil), Max Troell (Sweden), Diana H. Wall Pedro Jaureguiberry (Inter-American Institute for Global (United States of America), Christian Werner (Germany), Change Research/Argentina), Rashad Salimov (Azerbaijan) Karsten Wesche (Germany), Lyle G. Whyte (Canada), Jacki Wood (Canada), Cynthia N. Zayas (Philippines) CONTRIBUTING AUTHORS: Peter Akong Minang (Kenya), Yildiz Aumeeruddy-Thomas CHAPTER SCIENTIST: (France), Dániel Babai (Hungary), Elizabeth M. Bach (United Nicolas Titeux (Belgium), Martin Wiemers (Germany) States of America), Nichole Barger (USA), Shivani Barthwal (India), Bastien Beaufort (France), Marc-Olivier Beausoleil REVIEW EDITORS: (Canada), Diana Bowler (Norway), Bela Buck (Germany), Rodolfo Dirzo (Mexico), Sebsebe Woodmatas Demissew Cristian Correa (Chile), Luca Coscieme (Ireland), Stuart (Ethiopia) Butchart (United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland), Fabrice DeClerck (Belgium/France), Adriana De THIS CHAPTER SHOULD BE CITED AS: Palma (United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Purvis, A., Molnar, Z., Obura, D., Ichii, K., Willis, K., Chettri, Ireland), László Demeter (Hungary), Joseph DiBattista N., Dulloo, E., Hendry, A., Gabrielyan, B., Gutt, J., Jacob, (Australia), Kyle Elliott (Canada), Simon Ferrier (Australia), U., Keskin, E., Niamir, A., Öztürk, B., and Jaureguiberry, P Kathleen Galvin (United States of America), Lucas Garibaldi (2019). Chapter 2.2. Status and Trends – Nature. In: Global (Argentina), Abigail Golden (United States of America), assessment report of the Intergovernmental Science- Marta Gómez-Giménez (Germany), Ricardo Gonzalez Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services. (United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland), Brondízio, E. S., Settele, J., Díaz, S., Ngo, H. T. (eds). Kiyoko Gotanda (United Kingdom of Great Britain and IPBES secretariat, Bonn, Germany. Northern Ireland), Carlos A. Guerra (Germany), Thomas D. 108 pages DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.3832005 Harwood (Australia), Samantha L. L. Hill (United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland), John E. Hobbie PHOTO CREDIT: (United States of America), Murray M. Humphries (Canada), P. 201-202: Molnar Abel Peter David Hunt (Canada), Syed Ainul Hussein (India), Forest The designations employed and the presentation of material on the maps used in the present report do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. These maps have been prepared for the sole purpose of facilitating the assessment of the broad biogeographical areas represented therein. 203 CHAPTER 2.2 STATUS AND TRENDS – NATURE Table of Contents EXECUTIVE SUMMARY . 206 2.2.1 INTRODUCTION . 210 2.2.2 DIVERSE CONCEPTUALIZATIONS OF NATURE AND PLURALISTIC KNOWLEDGE SYSTEMS . 212 2.2.2.1 Indigenous Peoples’ and Local Communities’ conceptualizations and knowledges of nature (IPLCs) . 212 2.2.2.2 Collaboration between knowledge systems, changing conceptualizations . .213 2.2.3 OVERVIEW OF NATURE . 215 2.2.3.1 Essential Biodiversity Variables . 215 2.2.3.2 Ecosystem structure . 215 2.2.3.3 Ecosystem function . 215 2.2.3.4 Community composition . 217 2.2.3.4.1 Insular systems ...........................................................218 2.2.3.4.2 Hotspots of endemism and rarity .............................................218 2.2.3.4.3 Hotspots of agrobiodiversity .................................................220 2.2.3.5 Species populations . 222 2.2.3.6 Organismal traits . 223 2.2.3.7 Genetic composition . 224 2.2.4 CONTRIBUTION OF INDIGENOUS PEOPLES AND LOCAL COMMUNITIES TO THE CO-PRODUCTION AND MAINTENANCE OF NATURE . 225 2.2.4.1 Co-production of cultural landscapes with high ecosystem heterogeneity . 225 2.2.4.2 Development of species-rich semi-natural ecosystems of wild species . .226 2.2.4.3 Creation of new ecosystems with a combination of wild and domestic species . 226 2.2.4.4 Contributing to agrodiversity by selection and domestication . 226 2.2.4.5 Enhancement of the natural resilience through traditional management . .226 2.2.4.6 Increase local net primary biomass production at the landscape scale . .227 2.2.4.7 Contribution to biodiversity by sustaining and protecting ecosystems of high conservation value from external users . 228 2.2.5 STATUS AND TRENDS IN NATURE . 228 2.2.5.1 Pre-1970 trends in nature . 228 2.2.5.2 Trends in nature since 1970 and current status . 229 2.2.5.2.1 Ecosystem structure .......................................................230 2.2.5.2.2 Ecosystem function ........................................................234 2.2.5.2.3 Community composition ....................................................235 2.2.5.2.4 Species populations .......................................................238 2.2.5.2.5 Organismal traits ..........................................................243 2.2.5.2.6 Genetic composition .......................................................246 2.2.5.3 Status and trends of nature in land and sea managed and/or held by Indigenous Peoples and Local Communities . 247 2.2.5.3.1 Status and trends of nature as assessed by science. 247 2.2.5.3.2 Trends of nature as observed by Indigenous Peoples and Local Communities ...........248 2.2.6 GLOBAL-SCALE ANALYSIS OF ATTRIBUTION OF TRENDS TO DRIVERS . 251 2.2.6.1 Challenges of synthesis . 251 2.2.6.2 Attribution of natural science indicator trends to direct drivers . 253 2.2.6.3 Attribution of drivers by Indigenous Peoples and Local Communities . .254 204 THE GLOBAL ASSESSMENT REPORT ON BIODIVERSITY AND ECOSYSTEM SERVICES 2.2.7 UNITS OF ANALYSIS . 255 2.2.7.1 Introduction . 255 2.2.7.2 Tropical and subtropical dry and humid forests . 257 2.2.7.3 Boreal and temperate forests . 257 2.2.7.4 Mediterranean forests, woodlands and scrub . 258 2.2.7.5 Arctic and mountain tundra . 259 2.2.7.6 Tropical and subtropical savannas and grasslands . 259 2.2.7.7 Temperate grasslands . 260 2.2.7.8 Deserts and xeric shrub lands . 261 2.2.7.9 Wetlands . 261 2.2.7.10 Urban/semi-urban . 262 2.2.7.11 Cultivated areas . 263 2.2.7.12 Cryosphere . 263 2.2.7.13 Aquaculture . 264 2.2.7.14 Inland waters . 265 2.2.7.15 Shelf systems . 265 2.2.7.16 Surface open ocean . 266 2.2.7.17 Deep sea . 267 2.2.7.18 Coastal areas intensively and multiply used by humans . 269 REFERENCES . 270 205 CHAPTER 2.2 STATUS AND TRENDS – NATURE CHAPTER 2.2 STATUS AND TRENDS – NATURE EXECUTIVE SUMMARY is still classified as “wilderness” – and these areas tend to be remote and/or unproductive (e .g ., tundra, 1 Humanity is now a dominant influence on nature oceanic gyres) (well established) {2 .2 .5 .2 .1} . The most worldwide (well established) {2 .2 .5, 2 .2 .7}, with many accessible and hospitable biomes either have been almost impacts having accelerated rapidly in the 20th century totally modified by humans in most regions (e.g., (well established) {2 .2 .5 .2} . Humanity has influenced Mediterranean forests and scrub, temperate forests) or nature significantly since prehistory, both positively (e.g., show maximum levels of conversion to anthropogenic development of agrobiodiversity) and negatively (e.g., biomes or “anthromes” (e.g., conversion of most temperate extinction of megafauna and flightless island birds) (well grassland to cultivated land and urban areas) (well established) {2.2.4, 2.2.5.1}; but nature – including species, established) {2.2.7.7}. Although the five freshwater and their genes and populations, communities of interacting marine biomes cannot be settled and physically transformed populations, ecological and evolutionary processes, and the in the same way as terrestrial biomes, they too