E-racing the Genetic Family Tree: A Critical Race Analysis of the Impact of Familial DNA Searching on Canada's Aboriginal Peoples Amy Conroy A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of the Ph.D. in Law Faculty of Law University of Ottawa © Amy Conroy, Ottawa, Canada, 2016 TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................... v ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ........................................................................................................... vi CHAPTER ONE: Introduction ............................................................................................... 1 1.1 Introduction to the Research ................................................................................................. 1 1.2 Methodology ................................................................................................................................ 7 1.3 Canada’s NDDB ......................................................................................................................... 18 1.4 Aboriginal Overrepresentation on Canada’s NDDB ..................................................... 27 1.5 Literature Review .................................................................................................................... 37 (i) The Uniqueness of DNA ....................................................................................................................... 40 (ii) Societal Acceptance of Forensic Surveillance Technologies .............................................. 41 (iii) Genetic Discrimination ..................................................................................................................... 43 (iv) CRT on Inequality in the Criminal Justice System ................................................................. 46 (v) Theories of Groups Rights ................................................................................................................. 48 1.6 Division of Chapters ................................................................................................................ 49 CHAPTER TWO: The Science Behind Familial DNA Searching ............................... 52 2.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 52 2.2 Towards the Discovery of the Identifying Power of DNA: Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Century Achievements in the Genetic Sciences ............................................... 55 2.3 Genetic Sequencing and the Discovery of DNA Profiling ............................................ 63 2.4 DNA Profiling in the Courtroom ......................................................................................... 68 2.5 Familial Searching: An Extension of the Science of DNA Profiling .......................... 71 CHAPTER THREE: The Limits of Individual Rights: A CRT Analysis of Potential Charter Challenges to Familial Searching of the NDDB ............................................ 79 3.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 79 3.2 Familial Searching and the Right to Equality Under Section 15 .............................. 83 3.2.1 Section 15: Discrimination on Grounds of Race .................................................................. 88 3.2.2 Section 15: Discrimination on Grounds of Family Status ................................................ 92 3.2.3 Section 15: Discrimination on Grounds of Sex ..................................................................... 96 3.2.4 Section 1: Assessing the Reasonable Limits .......................................................................... 97 Table 1: Summary of Section 15 findings .................................................................................................... 102 3.2.5 Equality and the Disproportionate Impact of Familial Searching on Canada’s Aboriginal Peoples ..................................................................................................................................... 102 3.3 Familial Searching and the Right to be Free From Unreasonable Search and Seizure Under Section 8 ............................................................................................................ 104 3.3.1 Section 8, Stage 1: Determining Whether a Search or Seizure Took Place ............ 109 What is the subject matter of the evidence gathered by police? ....................................................... 113 Do potential claimants have a direct interest in the contents of the information that is searched? ................................................................................................................................................................... 118 Do potential claimants have a subjective expectation of privacy in the subject matter of the search? ........................................................................................................................................................................ 122 If a subjective expectation of privacy exists, is it objectively reasonable? .................................... 127 3.3.2 Section 8, Stage 2: The Reasonableness of the Search .................................................... 143 Prior Authorization ............................................................................................................................................... 144 The Reasonableness of the Law Authorizing the Search ...................................................................... 145 3.3.3 Section 1: Assessing the Reasonable Limits ........................................................................ 147 ii Table 2: Summary of Section 8 Findings ...................................................................................................... 150 3.3.4 Privacy and the Disproportionate Impact of Familial Searching on Canada’s Aboriginal Peoples ..................................................................................................................................... 151 3.4 Familial Searching and the Right to Life, Liberty, and Security of the Person Under Section 7 ............................................................................................................................ 156 3.4.1 Section 7, Stage 1: Establishing a Violation of a Protected Interest .......................... 158 Familial Searching and the Right to Life: ..................................................................................................... 158 Familial Searching and the Right to Liberty: .............................................................................................. 159 Familial Searching and the Right to Security of the Person: ............................................................... 161 3.4.2 Section 7, Stage 2: Assessing the Deprivation of the Interest Against the Principles of Fundamental Justice ............................................................................................................................ 168 3.4.3 Section 1: Assessing the Reasonable Limits ........................................................................ 172 Table 3: Summary of Section 7 Findings ...................................................................................................... 174 3.4.4 Security of the Person and the Disproportionate Impact of Familial Searching on Canada’s Aboriginal Peoples ................................................................................................................. 175 3.5 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................... 176 CHAPTER FOUR: Beyond Individual Rights: Potential Policy Implications of Familial Searching of Canada’s NDDB ......................................................................... 178 4.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 178 4.2 Policy Issues and the Potential Impact of Familial Searching on Canada’s Aboriginal Peoples ...................................................................................................................... 180 4.2.1 Discretionary Decision-Making in Familial Searching: Lessons From the Forensic Fingerprinting Experience ..................................................................................................................... 180 Subjective Judgment in Familial Searching: Consequences for Equality ....................................... 199 4.2.2 The Relationship between Familial Searching and Forensic Use of Abandoned DNA .................................................................................................................................................................. 201 The Combined use of Familial Searching and Abandoned DNA: Consequences for Equality ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 211 4.2.3 The Relationship between Familial Searching and Forensic Phenotyping ........... 213 The Combined use of Familial Searching and Forensic Phenotyping: Consequences for Equality ......................................................................................................................................................................