BIGGER EYES IN A WIDER UNIVERSE: THE AMERICAN UNDERSTANDING OF EARTH IN OUTER SPACE, 1893-1941 A Dissertation by JODICUS WAYNE PROSSER Submitted to the Office of Graduate Studies of Texas A&M University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY May 2009 Major Subject: Geography BIGGER EYES IN A WIDER UNIVERSE: THE AMERICAN UNDERSTANDING OF EARTH IN OUTER SPACE, 1893-1941 A Dissertation by JODICUS WAYNE PROSSER Submitted to the Office of Graduate Studies of Texas A&M University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Approved by: Chair of Committee, Peter J. Hugill Committee Members, Jonathan M. Smith Christian Brannstrom Jonathan Coopersmith Head of Department, Douglas J. Sherman May 2009 Major Subject: Geography iii ABSTRACT Bigger Eyes in a Wider Universe: The American Understanding of Earth in Outer Space, 1893-1941. (May 2009) Jodicus Wayne Prosser, B.S., Austin Peay State University; M.P.A., Murray State University Chair of Advisory Committee: Dr. Peter J. Hugill Between 1893 and 1941, the understanding of the Milky Way galaxy within the American culture changed from a sphere to a spiral and Earth’s location within it changed from the center to the periphery. These changes were based primarily upon scientific theories developed at Mount Wilson Observatory near Pasadena, California. This dissertation is an “astrosophy” that traces the history of changing depictions of the Milky Way in selected published sources and identifies key individuals, theories and technologies involved. It also demonstrates why the accepted depictions of the universe envisioned at Mount Wilson were cultural-scientific products created, in part, as the result of place. Southern California became the hearth of a culture that justified its superiority based upon its unique climate. Clear skies, remarkable visibility, and a perceived existence of intense natural light became the basis for the promotion of Mount Wilson as the premier location for astronomical observations. Conservation, en plein air paintings, and the concept of paysage moralisé are Southern Californian cultural products of the iv early 1900s that promoted an idealized society capable of exceptional intellectual endeavors and scientific accomplishments. The efforts of astronomers Hale, Shapley, Adams, Hubble and Ritchey resulted in the changing American understanding of the universe. This dissertation reveals how the diverse social interactions of these astronomers intersected Arroyo Seco meetings, women’s organizations, the Valley Hunt Club elites, and philanthropic groups that comprised the schizophrenic culture of Pasadena. Their astronomical theories are compared to other aspects of the Southern Californian culture revealed in the writings of Raymond Chandler, Nathanael West and John Fante. The desire of astronomers to gain prestige from their discoveries is compared to competition in the creative processes of Hollywood. The theories created by astronomers and the films of the motion picture industry relied upon establishing an accepted second space within the minds of their audiences. By the end of the study period, the universe accepted by most Americans was a “California Universe”. It was not a discovery of pure science, but rather a cultural- scientific product of the Mount Wilson astronomers, the Pasadena community and the landscape and culture of Southern California. v DEDICATION This dissertation is dedicated to my wife, Ruth. Her love has changed the meaning of my universe and her companionship has made it endlessly more fascinating. vi ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The completion of this dissertation would not have been possible without the help of many people. Most are anonymous librarians and research staff who have gathered and sent information to me from various libraries and collections throughout the United States. These dedicated individuals also maintain and improve the on-line research tools and data bases upon which virtually every modern researcher has come to depend. Such tools, along with technological advances such as word processing, on-line dictionaries, and spell-checkers have made this academic endeavor achievable for a mind such as mine. I am thankful for these conveniences, the people who have made them a reality, and those that have taken the time to teach me their most efficient and effective applications. Fortunately, many who have assisted me are not among the anonymous and have left an indelible mark upon my memory. I would like to acknowledge just a few of these very special people, starting with the members of my dissertation committee. My committee chair, Dr. Hugill, introduced me to the vast array of possibilities within the field of geography. He has guided my interests but has never limited them. Dr. Jonathan Smith exposed me to the concept of geosophy. He could not have known at the time, what I would choose to do with this knowledge. But, without such a framework the idea for this dissertation would have never been hatched. Dr. Jonathan Coopersmith instilled within me a deep conviction that the relationships between history, technology, science, and geography merited additional research and study. Dr. Christian Brannstrom has been my academic voice of reason. He pushed when I needed a start, poked when I needed to vii adjust course, and sometimes made me aware I was going the wrong direction just when I was picking up speed. It is my sincerest wish that each of my committee members identifies the evidence of their handiwork in the pages of this dissertation and appreciates my level of indebtedness to their teachings. Next, I would like to thank Don Nicholson and the volunteers of the Mount Wilson Society. Don is the son of a Mount Wilson Astronomer who lived and worked in Pasadena during the period of this study. Not only did Mr. Nicholson provide access to the sixty-inch and one-hundred-inch telescopes on Mount Wilson. His memories of the era in Southern California, the personalities of the astronomers, and the technicalities of their work greatly enriched this effort. A portion of the research conducted for this dissertation was funded by Embry- Riddle Aeronautical University Extended Campus Research Reward Program. I owe a debt of gratitude to Dr. Alan Bender of Embry Riddle who encouraged me to apply for this grant to cover the cost of research at the Library of Congress and Huntington Library in Pasadena. The reference librarians in the Geography and Maps Department of the Library of Congress were extraordinarily helpful. Finally, I would like to thank my wife, Ruth Ann Minkus Prosser. Her support during this project has been more than any husband deserves. Now it is her turn. viii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ABSTRACT............................................................................................................... iii DEDICATION........................................................................................................... v ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ........................................................................................ vi TABLE OF CONTENTS........................................................................................... viii LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................... x LIST OF TABLES..................................................................................................... xii CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................... 1 Background .............................................................................................. 2 Research Design and Methods................................................................. 11 II THE SCIENCE OF CHANGING THE UNIVERSE .................................... 20 Using Lenses and Trigonometry to Chart Earth’s Place in the Heavens ......................................................................................... 24 Using the Rules of Science to Understand the Nature of Celestial Phenomenon.............................................................................. 31 Using Mirrors, Mountains, and Relativity to Expose Outer Space.......... 35 Using Debate to Measure the Galaxy ...................................................... 41 Using Non-Scientific Techniques to Comprehend the Cosmos .............. 45 Using Light to Explain and Expand the Known Universe....................... 51 Changes in Cartographic Representations of the Milky Way.................. 57 Summary.................................................................................................. 61 III FINDING ONE’S PLACE IN THE WORLD (1893-1917) ....................... 65 Muir’s California of Landscape and Light............................................... 69 The Land of Sunshine and the Arroyo Culture........................................ 73 Hale and the Pasadena Community ......................................................... 77 Southern California as Paysage Moralisé and the Home of the En Plein Air Artists.................................................................................. 80 Building a Scientific Community within Nature’s Splendor................... 92 Summary.................................................................................................. 101 ix CHAPTER Page IV UNDERSTANDING ONE’S PLACE IN THE UNIVERSE (1917-1941)... 104 Raymond Chandler and the Californian Image of Independence............ 108 Harlow Shapley.......................................................................................