Pan-Africanism and Globalized Black Identity in the Poetry of Kofi Anyidoho and Kwadwo Opokwu-Agyemang Oyeniyi Okunoye The fact that most of contemporary African writing is immersed in the historical and the social constantly poses a challenge to reading and theorizing it. The boundary between text and context is often so thin or blurred that it becomes difficult to distance texts from their ena- bling situations. This convergence implies that any attempt at transfer- ring values that are already taken for granted in Western traditions of critical practice will distort or misrepresent literary practices in this case. The situation is becoming increasingly complicated as various national literatures are acquiring distinctive idioms based on the unique ways that social and creative traditions negotiate their terms of engagement. The challenge that this poses to theorizing African literature is to ap- preciate the traditions that sustain specific literary efforts and appraise them accordingly. Ghanaian literary culture, an aspect of which is the object of this exploration, is very unique in the sense that it exhibits a considerable sense of historical awareness. This historicity testifies to its implication in the discourses that sustained the nationalist project in much of what used to be British-controlled West Africa in general and the former Gold Coast in particular.1 Ghanaian writing exhibits a great deal of Pan-Africanist consciousness, a reality that has much to do with the nation’s history and the conscious way that a Pan-Africanist outlook has been sustained within the Ghanaian intellectual tradition and public life. Ghanaian writing has probably borne more of the African historical burden than any other national literary tradition in Africa and this is its unique input into the constitution of African writing: Ghanaian writers generally privilege realities that are central to defining the experiences of black people from the pre-colonial era to the present. It is no surprise, 57 Oyeniyi Okunoye for instance, that three out of the four writers that Cristel Tempels stud- ies in Literary Pan-Africanism are Ghanaian. Two major factors explain this orientation in Ghanaian writing. The first is that Ghana has many of the reminders of the traumatic experience of slavery, the single most important assault on the continent, which constantly inspire creative reflection on the experience. These are mainly forts and trade posts that European slave traders used: Ghana boasts the distinction of having sixty castles, forts, and lodges built along its three-hundred-mile coastline. The Portuguese were the first to protect their trading interests by building Sao Jorge da Mina, or St. George’s castle, at Elmina in 1482; thereafter the Dutch, Swedes, Prussians, Danish, and British all competed for dominance, with many fortifications changing hands as one European power triumphed over an- other. With the abolition of the slave trade, these structures were often used as colonial administrative offices and prisons; after independence in 1957, some functioned as schools or military training academies; Christianborg castle in the capital, Accra, has served as Ghana’s seat of government since 1876. (Richards 622) The monuments have become important for the development of a herit- age tourism built around the experience of slavery. These historical sites attract diasporic Africans who are eager to trace their African roots and emotionally recapture the origins of the African diaspora. The second factor is that Ghanaians have particularly sustained the Pan-Africanist vision and this has come to be associated with the way the Ghanaian nation itself is imagined. Kwakwu Larbi Korang’s Writing Ghana, Imagining Africa situates African modernity within a trans-national framework and demonstrates the sense in which the intellectual history of Ghana must proceed from acknowledging the foundation that a form of Pan-Africanism from the nineteenth century laid the foundation for the Ghanaian outlook on the African identity. The fact that Ghana was also the first African country to gain independence from the British naturally placed the responsibility of leading the rest of the continent on 58 Pan-Africanism and Globalized Black Identity her. Kwame Nkrumah, who led Ghana to independence and became her first president, sought to translate his vision of an integrated Africa into reality by also encouraging Ghanaians to long for an African nation in which people of the African diaspora will also have a sense of belonging.2 He consequently promoted an official policy that encouraged people in the African world to return as a practical expression of the grand dream of uniting Africa and recovering from her fragmentation by colonial- ism. This reinforced the link between the new nation and the African diaspora to the extent that many diasporic Africans3 either relocated to, or had extended sojourns in, Ghana. But the concern with shared historical experiences in the Ghanaian literary imagination has never been limited to the backward glance that the preoccupation with the involuntary removal of Africans through slavery represents. Ironically, more critical attention seems to have been devoted to the seeming obses- sion of this literary tradition with the consequence of colonial incursion and the failure of independence that is just a phase in the engagement with the black condition in Ghanaian writing. I. Traumatized Memory and the Black Literary Imagination While it is not possible to separate the engagement with the histori- cal and cultural connections between continental Africa and the rest of the African world in Ghanaian writing from the propagation of Pan-Africanist ideals in Ghanaian national life, it is also possible to ap- preciate the same reality in the context of the strong link between black writing in general and collective memory. Black writing is remarkable for its ability to compel a journeying back in space and time to reflect on the assault of history as it seeks to locate black peoples and their condi- tions in time. In the process, it prioritizes shared experiences as opposed to personal quests. The consequence is that no informed reading of the black expressive culture will fail to appreciate its immersion in history. But because no literary tradition simply reproduces history, the black creative imagination is almost obsessed with recreating, reinterpreting and recovering remarkable experiences. For people of African descent forcibly taken away from their lands and peoples, these include slavery and the consequent loss of identity, the agony of the Middle Passage and 59 Oyeniyi Okunoye the eventual quest for freedom and integration in the new environment. In continental Africa, the sad events include the loss of a substantial population in very dehumanizing circumstances, the protracted assault of colonial exploitation and dominance as well as the irresponsible manner in which the indigenous ruling elite has been managing inde- pendent Africa. In every case, the writer seems to have been preoccupied with the challenges of history and the urgency of recovering from its negative impact. These experiences, unpleasant as they are, have inspired unique forms of musical and literary expression. It is not difficult to demonstrate the sense in which almost every major event in the black historical experience has been recreated in Ghanaian letters. Various generations of Ghanaian writers as well as different genres have sustained this commitment in a variety of ways. Kofi Anyidoho opines that “[Pan-Africanism and the issue of slavery dominate Ghanaian literature because there is no major Ghanaian writer who has not engaged either or both of these themes in his or her work” (Conversation 8). Kwado Oseyi-Nyame demonstrates in his study of the novels of Kwabena Selky and J.E. Casely Hayford, two Ghanaian nationalists, that a great deal of Pan-Africanist consciousness animated their imagination. Ayi Kwei Armah has given the most eloquent con- temporary expression to the transnational consciousness that centralizes black experience, and his work explores various aspects and phases of the same history in a way that makes him register his vision of the black experience in a consistently passionate fashion. There is a tendency in the works of these writers not to be content with exploring the African but the wider black experience and thereby recognize affinities to black people who have been separated from the homeland. This is the sense in which we should appreciate the ease with which Awoonor’s Comes the Voyager at Last and Armah’s Osiris Rising, for instance, privilege the trope of return in which the familiar quest for self-discovery that inspires many diasporic Africans to come to Ghana in the bid to appreciate their roots, now provides a basis for fictional recreation. But while fictional recreations of African history are familiar, engage- ments of the same experiences in the genre of poetry have not enjoyed adequate consideration in spite of the fact that they are far more diverse 60 Pan-Africanism and Globalized Black Identity and inventive. The desire to imagine experiences that transcend local- ized realities and imaginatively construct a black world is a value that the works of Kofi Awoonor, Kwabena Eyi Acquah and Kofi Anyidoho share with the poems of Langston Hughes, Kamau Brathwaite, and the Congolese Jean Baptiste Tati-Loutard. While the poems have been stud- ied as works of art and have also been located within the oeuvres of their authors, it will be exciting to read them comparatively with other works that inhabit the same space. Works as diverse as Langston Hughes’s “The Negro Speaks of Rivers”, Kamau Brathwaite’s The Arrivants and Jean Baptiste Tati-Loutard’s Poems of the Sea demonstrate profound con- sciousness of the variety of journeys that have shaped the black identity. Joseph McLaren maintains that “Hughes’s “The Negro Speaks of Rivers” […] written prior to his journey to West Africa, suggests the literary seeds of Afrocentricity through references to the Nile and the pyramids” (528).