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When referring to this work, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given e.g. AUTHOR (year of submission) "Full thesis title", University of Southampton, name of the University School or Department, PhD Thesis, pagination http://eprints.soton.ac.uk UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHAMPTON FACULTY OF NATURAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES School of Ocean and Earth Science Bone-eating worms and wood-eating bivalves: characterising the ecology of deep-sea organic falls from multiple ocean basins by Diva J. Amon Thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy September 2013 UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHAMPTON ABSTRACT FACULTY OF NATURAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES OCEAN AND EARTH SCIENCE Thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy BONE-EATING WORMS AND WOOD-EATING BIVALVES: CHARACTERISING THE ECOLOGY OF DEEP-SEA ORGANIC FALLS FROM MULTIPLE OCEAN BASINS Diva Joan Amon Large organic inputs to the deep seafloor such as the remains of whales or pieces of wood are termed ‘organic falls’. Despite over 30 years of research on these interesting deep-sea habitats, we still have only a basic understanding of their taxonomic composition and for some ocean basins, no natural or experimental studies have ever been conducted. The degree of connectivity between these isolated habitats, as well as how quickly organic matter is remineralised by specialist organic-fall fauna (e.g bone- eating Osedax worms and wood-eating Xylophaga molluscs) is poorly known. In this thesis, I report the discovery of the first Antarctic whale fall and the diverse assemblage of fauna encrusting it (Chapter 2). The microdistribution of fauna on the whale bones provided evidence for the ‘oil-gradient’ hypothesis that more lipid-rich bones support a greater abundance of sulfophilic bacterial mats, which are also correlated with the abundance of grazing fauna. The abundance of Osedax species on bones however, showed a negative correlation with the bacterial-mat cover, and hence the greatest abundance was on bones predicted to have the lowest lipid content. The Osedax species discovered were investigated in detail (Chapter 3) and revealed two new species and a third previously- known species; Osedax rogersi sp. nov., Osedax crouchi sp. nov. (described in this thesis and associated paper) and Osedax antarcticus. The new species, O. crouchi as well as another new species, Osedax nordenskioeldi sp. nov. (also described in this thesis and associated paper) and Osedax antarcticus were also found on implanted whale bones off Smith Island in the Bransfield Strait. These two localities are approximately 1800 km apart demonstrating the remarkable dispersal capability of species within this genus. As well as the Antarctic study, I report on wood and bone-colonisation experiments on the Southwest Indian Ridge at two seamounts. A large number of species were found colonising the deployments; 53 species at Coral Seamount and 38 species at Atlantis Bank seamount with only 11 species in common and several putative new species present. Apart from Xylophaginae and Idas bivalves, few organic-fall specialists were present, possibly as there were major differences between the two seamounts suggesting that there were barriers to dispersal (Chapter 4). The wood deployments from each seamount were investigated in further detail using X-ray micro-computed tomography to examine the nature of intact Xylophaga borings, the comparative abundances and population size structures of the species, their rates of growth and their consumption rates of wood (Chapter 5). Two more sets of samples from the Mid-Cayman Spreading Centre and the Tongue of the Ocean, Bahamas were scanned also. The wood at each deployment site was colonized by a different species of Xylophaga. This novel analysis has shown that an individual Xylophaga can bore between 0.235 and 0.606 cm3 of wood per year depending on the species, emphasising the importance of the genus Xylophaga with regard to wood remineralisation in the deep sea and its role as an ecosystem engineer. Contents ABSTRACT ...................................................................................................................... i Contents .......................................................................................................................... iii List of figures ................................................................................................................. vii List of tables .................................................................................................................... ix DECLARATION OF AUTHORSHIP ......................................................................... xi Acknowledgements ....................................................................................................... xiii 1. Organic falls in the deep sea .................................................................................... 1 1.1 Whale falls .......................................................................................................................2 1.1.1 The successional stages of whale falls .......................................................................2 1.1.2 The impact of whaling on the faunal communities associated with whale falls ........8 1.2 The bone-boring genus Osedax ....................................................................................10 1.2.1 Taxonomy ................................................................................................................10 1.2.2 Bacterial symbiosis and nutrition in the genus Osedax ...........................................13 1.2.3 The reproductive biology and life history of the genus Osedax ..............................16 1.2.4 The fossil evidence of the genus Osedax .................................................................19 1.3 Wood Falls .....................................................................................................................21 1.3.1 The ecology of wood falls .......................................................................................21 1.4 The wood-boring genus Xylophaga .............................................................................24 1.4.1 Taxonomy ................................................................................................................24 1.4.2 Bacterial symbiosis and nutrition in the genus Xylophaga ......................................27 1.4.3 The reproductive biology and life history of the genus Xylophaga .........................28 1.4.4 The growth rates of the genus Xylophaga ...............................................................31 1.5 Similarities between the genera Osedax and Xylophaga ............................................32 1.6 The overlap of fauna between organic falls and other chemosynthetic habitats ....33 1.7 Thesis aims and objectives ...........................................................................................36 2. The discovery of a natural whale fall in the Antarctic deep sea ........................ 39 2.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................40 2.2 Methods .........................................................................................................................42 2.2.1 Observation and sample collection at the whale fall ...............................................42 2.2.2 DNA barcoding of the whale fall .............................................................................45 2.2.3 210Pb/226Ra analysis of the whale fall .......................................................................46 2.3 Results ............................................................................................................................51 iii 2.3.1 Location and initial observations of the whale fall ................................................. 51 2.3.2 DNA barcoding of the whale fall ............................................................................ 52 2.3.3 Whale-fall successional stage and community composition ................................... 54 2.3.4 Variation in community composition along the skeleton ........................................ 55 2.3.5 Further observations of the whale fall in 2011 ........................................................ 58 2.4 Discussion ...................................................................................................................... 59 2.4.1 Species, age and successional processes of the whale skeleton .............................. 59 2.4.2 The 'oil-gradient' hypothesis ................................................................................... 62 2.5 Conclusions ................................................................................................................... 64 3. Three new species and an expansion of range for the genus Osedax (Annelida: Siboglinidae) in the deep Antarctic ............................................................................