Ornithophily in the genus Salvia L. (Lamiaceae) Dissertation zur Erlangung des Grades „Doktor der Naturwissenschaften“ am Fachbereich Biologie der Johannes Gutenberg-Universität Mainz Petra Wester geb. in Linz/Rhein Mainz, 2007 Kapitel 2 dieser Arbeit wurde veröffentlicht beim Springer Verlag unter: Wester, P. & Claßen-Bockhoff, R. (2006): Hummingbird pollination in Salvia haenkei (Lamiaceae) lacking the typical lever mechanism. Plant Systematics and Evolution 257: 133-146. Kapitel 3 dieser Arbeit wurde veröffentlicht bei Elsevier unter: Wester, P. & Claßen- Bockhoff, R. (2006): Bird pollination in South African Salvia species. Flora 201: 396- 406. Kapitel 5 dieser Arbeit ist im Druck bei Oxford University Press (Annals of Botany) unter: Wester, P. & Claßen-Bockhoff, R. (2007): Floral diversity and pollen transfer mechanisms in bird-pollinated Salvia species. Meinen Eltern gewidmet Contents SUMMARY OF THE THESIS............................................................................................................................. 1 ZUSAMMENFASSUNG....................................................................................................................................... 2 1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................................................... 3 2 HUMMINGBIRD POLLINATION IN SALVIA HAENKEI (LAMIACEAE) LACKING THE TYPICAL LEVER MECHANISM ...................................................................................................................................... 5 2.1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................................... 5 2.2 MATERIAL AND METHODS..................................................................................................................... 7 2.3 RESULTS...................................................................................................................................................... 8 2.3.1 Salvia haenkei........................................................................................................................................................... 8 2.3.2 Flower visitors ........................................................................................................................................................ 11 2.4 DISCUSSION.............................................................................................................................................. 14 2.4.1 Salvia haenkei as a nectar source for hummingbirds .............................................................................................. 14 2.4.2 Flower-bird interaction ........................................................................................................................................... 16 2.4.3 Pollen transfer without lever mechanism................................................................................................................ 17 2.5 SUMMARY................................................................................................................................................. 19 3 BIRD POLLINATION IN SOUTH AFRICAN SALVIA SPECIES ............................................................. 20 3.1 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................................... 20 3.2 MATERIAL AND METHODS................................................................................................................... 22 3.3 RESULTS.................................................................................................................................................... 24 3.3.1 Bird pollination....................................................................................................................................................... 24 3.3.2 Floral construction.................................................................................................................................................. 25 3.3.3 Pollination simulation............................................................................................................................................. 27 3.4 DISCUSSION.............................................................................................................................................. 28 3.4.1 The ornithophilous syndrome in South African Salvia species .............................................................................. 28 3.4.2 Flower-bird interactions.......................................................................................................................................... 29 3.4.3 Phylogenetic considerations ................................................................................................................................... 32 3.5 SUMMARY................................................................................................................................................. 34 4 POLLINATION SYNDROMES OF NEW WORLD SALVIA SPECIES WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO BIRD POLLINATION .............................................................................................................................. 35 4.1 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................................... 35 4.2 MATERIAL AND METHODS................................................................................................................... 36 4.2.1 Salvia species.......................................................................................................................................................... 36 4.2.2 Methods .................................................................................................................................................................. 37 4.3 RESULTS.................................................................................................................................................... 40 4.3.1 Ornithophilous species............................................................................................................................................ 40 4.3.2 Melittophilous species ............................................................................................................................................ 49 4.3.3 Psychophilous species ............................................................................................................................................ 51 4.3.4 ‘Intermediate’ or not assignable species ................................................................................................................. 52 4.4 DISCUSSION.............................................................................................................................................. 55 4.4.1 Pollination syndromes in the New World Salvia species........................................................................................ 55 4.4.1.1 Ornithophily..................................................................................................................................................... 55 4.4.1.2 Melittophily ..................................................................................................................................................... 57 4.4.1.3 Psychophily...................................................................................................................................................... 58 4.4.1.4 Parallel evolution of pollination syndromes in the genus Salvia...................................................................... 58 4.4.2 Generalisation versus specialisation in Salvia and the evolutionary significance of ‘intermediates’...................... 59 4.5 APPENDICES............................................................................................................................................. 64 4.6 SUMMARY................................................................................................................................................. 76 5 FLORAL DIVERSITY AND POLLEN TRANSFER MECHANISMS IN BIRD POLLINATED SALVIA SPECIES............................................................................................................................................................ 77 5.1 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................................... 77 5.2 MATERIAL AND METHODS................................................................................................................... 82 5.2.1 Salvia species.......................................................................................................................................................... 82 5.2.2 Methods .................................................................................................................................................................. 82 5.3 RESULTS.................................................................................................................................................... 84 5.4 DISCUSSION............................................................................................................................................ 101 5.4.1 Diversity of pollen transfer in ornithophilous Salvia species...............................................................................