JIABS Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies Volume 35 Number 1–2 2012 (2013) JIABS Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies Volume 35 Number 1–2 2012 (2013) Articles Megan BRYSON Mahākāla worship in the Dali kingdom (937–1253) – A study of the Dahei tianshen daochang yi . 3 Thomas CRUIJSEN, Arlo GRIFFITHS, Marijke J. KLOKKE The cult of the Buddhist dhāraṇī deity Mahāpratisarā along the Maritime Silk Route: New epigraphical and iconographic evidence from the Indonesian Archipelago . 71 Roderick ORLINA Epigraphical evidence for the cult of Mahāpratisarā in the Philippines . 159 Vincent ELTSCHINGER Aśvaghoṣa and his canonical sources II – Yaśas, the Kāśyapa brothers and the Buddha’s arrival in Rājagha (Buddhacarita 16.3–71) . 171 Paul K. NIETUPSKI Atha niryāṇavṛttam: Refl ections on the fi rst sūtra and the opening passages of Guṇaprabha’s Vinayasūtra and Auto- commentary – With reference to Indian and Tibetan commentaries . 225 Reiko OHNUMA An elephant good to think – The Buddha in Pārileyyaka for- est . 259 2 Contents Jin Y. PARK A Huayanist reading of the Lotus Sūtra – The case of Li Tong- xuan . 295 Barbara GERKE ‘Treating the aged’ and ‘Maintaining health’ – Locating bcud len practices in the four Tibetan medical tantras . 329 Eviatar SHULMAN The Aṭṭhakavagga as Buddhist poetry . 363 Chizuko YOSHIMIZU Reasoning-for-others in Candrakīrti’s Madhyamaka thought . 413 • Notes on the contributors . 445 ‘Treating the aged’ and ‘Maintaining health’ Locating bcud len practices in the four Tibetan medical tantras1 rang sdug rang gis myong ba rde’u bcud len You are the creator of your own suff ering by taking essence extractions from pebbles. Tibetan proverb Barbara Gerke Introduction There are numerous instances in secondary literature on Tibetan medicine, or Sowa Rigpa (gso ba rig pa),2 alluding to certain ‘lon- gevity practices’ and the use of Tibetan medicine for revitalisation and anti-aging. Some of these refer to the core classical Tibetan medical compendium known as the Four Tantras (rgyud bzhi)3 as their main source and mention so-called “essence extraction” or bcud len practices, said to rejuvenate, prevent ageing, and support spiritual realisation. As the above proverb suggests, bcud len prac- tices can be rather unpleasant and diffi cult, since they typically in- 1 The research and writing of this paper was funded by the German Research Foundation (DFG Project no. 53307213). Initial work on this pro- ject was funded by the Frederick Williamson Memorial Trust, Cambridge, UK. I would like to thank Florian Ploberger, Katrin Jäger, Shedup Tenzin, Tawni Tidwell, as well as the Tibetan physicians Sonam Dolma, Norbuchung Tsering, and Tsering Wangdue from the Men-Tsee-Khang in Dharamsala for constructive comments on earlier drafts of this paper. All remaining errors are my own. 2 Sowa Rigpa (lit. “the science of healing”) is a term increasingly used for Tibetan medicine today, also in the context of its Indian recognition under AYUSH. 3 Tibetan terms are presented in Wylie transliteration (Wylie 1959). Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies Volume 35 • Number 1–2 • 2012 (2013) pp. 329–362 330 Barbara Gerke volve long periods of fasting, during which one lives on a few pills a day made from the extracts of stones (e.g. pebbles), fl owers, min- erals, or other material or immaterial substances. They can even be harmful if not carried out properly and under the guidance of an experienced teacher. The term bcud len has been translated as “elixir”4 or as “elixir of rejuvenation.”5 Some bcud len are indeed elixirs. Such elixirs are mentioned in Tibetan medical texts in the form of pills, liquid decoctions, extracts, or liquors. However, the meaning of the term bcud len is much broader, considering that a bcud len can also be an essence extracted from outer elements and Buddha fi elds by means of visualisation. Therefore, I largely prefer the term “essence ex- traction” since it refl ects the most signifi cant idea of a bcud len: that vital essences can be extracted from various substances, either pharmacologically or meditatively, for the purpose of promoting longevity. In this article, I use the terms bcud len and essence ex- traction interchangeably and the term elixir only in the context of certain rejuvenating products made from substances of which some are rich in bcud.6 Even though we are aware of the existence of bcud len practices in a variety of contexts,7 we do not know much about where exactly and in what way bcud len practices are presented in Tibetan medi- cal texts.8 The Four Tantras with its 156 chapters and 5,900 verses, 4 Emmerick 1990: 89. 5 Parfi onovitch, Dorje, Meyer 1992: 119. 6 Bcud has many meanings and can be translated as taste, essence, elixir, sap, moisture, potency, nutrition, extraction, good substance, essential as- pects, nutriment, nutritious, vital essence, quintessence, distillation, distilled essence, or a drink (THL 2010). 7 Garrett 2009, 2010; Gerke 2012b; Germano 1997; Mei 2010; Oliphant, forthcoming. 8 The exception here is Emmerick 1990, who contributed the fi rst English translation of the bcud len chapter of the Four Tantras. He also annotated the translation with some notes, pointing out lexical problems in various editions of the Four Tantras as well as parallel passages in the Aṣṭāṅgahṛdayasaṃhitā by Vāgbhaṭa and the Siddhasāra by Ravigupta (Emmerick 1990: 92–99). ‘Treating the aged’ and ‘Maintaining health’ 331 dating back to the twelfth century CE or even earlier,9 is a good point to start such an analysis, since it is the most infl uential medical text among most Tibetan doctors to this day, and a majority of chapters are still memorised as an integral part of medical education. This paper presents a preliminary study of the bcud len practices men- tioned in the Four Tantras and analyses their preventive, remedial, and rejuvenating character and also discusses the classifi cation of those bcud len ingredients that are used in elixirs and meditative consecration practices. Relevant comments from the popular sev- enteenth century commentary Blue Beryl (Baiḍūrya sngon po) by Desi Sangye Gyatso are included.10 This does not mean that bcud len practices are limited to these two texts. However, the mate- rial presented here can be considered representative of the kind of Tibetan medicine centred on the Four Tantras and more insti- tutionalised forms of medical knowledge that emerged in Central Tibet around the time of the Fifth Dalai Lama and Desi Sangye Gyatso.11 We should keep in mind that there remains a large heter- ogeneous corpus of Tibetan medical and Buddhist literature with a variety of bcud len practices that still await scholarly attention.12 I look at bcud len substances in the Four Tantras with the following question in mind: what makes them rich in “essence” (bcud) that then can be “extracted” (len pa) and made available to humans to support health and physical vitality and prevent prema- ture ageing? In doing so, I will highlight that bcud len substances and practices in the Four Tantras are not only used for invigorating the aged and rejuvenating the middle-aged, but are also considered disease-preventive as part of maintaining ‘normal health.’ The famous “eight branches” (Tib. yan lag brgyad, Skt. aṣṭāṅgahṛdaya) have long been known as a fundamental frame- work of medical classifi cation in both Indian and Tibetan tradi- tions. Two of these “eight branches” deal with important aspects 9 The sources of the Four Tantras have been analysed by Czaja (2005 / 2006), Emmerick (1977), Karmay (1989), and Yang Ga (2010 and in press). 10 Sangye Gyatso 1982. 11 See, for example, Schaeff er 2003. 12 See, for example, Oliphant, forthcoming. 332 Barbara Gerke of vitality: the seventh branch of “healing the aged” (rgas pa gso ba), which includes essence extraction practices (Tib. bcud len, Skt. rasāyana),13 and the eighth branch on “restoring virility” (Tib. ro tsa bar bya ba,14 Skt. vājīkaraṇa). Besides describing the com- pounding of elixirs and tonics, in most Indian alchemical traditions the term rasāyana also refers to the transmutation of metals into gold.15 When this knowledge reached Tibet, it was integrated into tantric and medical bcud len texts as well as into texts on metallur- gy (gser ’gyur). The “eight branches” appear in the famous ayurvedic compen- dium by Vāgbhaṭa (7th CE), the Aṣṭāṅgahṛdayasaṃhitā,16 which was translated into Tibetan in the eleventh century17 and was like- ly an important source for the compilation of the Four Tantras,18 but by far not the only one.19 The Tibetan translation of the Aṣṭāṅgahṛdayasaṃhitā had a considerable infl uence on medical texts until the Four Tantras took prominence during the course of the thirteenth century.20 Both, the Aṣṭāṅgahṛdayasaṃhitā and the Four Tantras cover the “eight branches,” albeit in diff erent chap- ters. Both texts have chapters on essence extractions and on the restoration of virility. 13 Rasa means taste, essence, and also mercury; āyana means path. 14 Ro is the Tibetan term for the Sanskrit rasa; tsa is a translation of the Sanskrit particle ca; ro tsa is commonly translated as “virility,” and ro tsa sman are “aphrodisiacs.” 15 Walter 1979: 319. 16 The Aṣṭāṅgahṛdayasaṃhitā is available in Sanskrit (Emmerick and Das 1998), Tibetan (Vāgbhaṭa 2004), German (Hilgenberg and Kirfel 1941), English (Murthy 1996), and in several other Indian languages. 17 Vāgbhaṭa 2004. 18 Emmerick 1977; Karmay 1989, 1998. 19 Yang Ga argues that only “about one quarter of the Explanatory Tantra, about seven percent of Oral Instruction Tantra, and three percent of the Final Tantra are directly or indirectly derived from The Heart of Medicine,” i.e. the Aṣṭāṅgahṛdayasaṃhitā (Yang Ga, in press).