AL RIHLA AND CURRICULUM THEORY: A QUALITATIVE COMPARATIVE STUDY OF CONTEMPORARY AND HISTORICAL MUSLIM TRAVELERS IN SEARCH OF KNOWLEDGE A Dissertation by METHAL R. MOHAMMED Submitted to the Office of Graduate Studies of Texas A&M University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY May 2011 Major Subject: Curriculum and Instruction AL RIHLA AND CURRICULUM THEORY: A QUALITATIVE COMPARATIVE STUDY OF CONTEMPORARY AND HISTORICAL MUSLIM TRAVELERS IN SEARCH OF KNOWLEDGE A Dissertation by METHAL R. MOHAMMED Submitted to the Office of Graduate Studies of Texas A&M University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Approved by: Chair of Committee, G. Patrick Slattery Committee Members, Patricia Larke Janet Hammer Elsa Gonzalez y Gonzalez Akel Ismaiel Kahera Head of Department, Dennie Smith May 2011 Major Subject: Curriculum and Instruction iii ABSTRACT Al-Rihla and Curriculum Theory: A Qualitative Comparative Study of Contemporary and Historical Muslim Travelers in Search of Knowledge. (May 2011) Methal R. Mohammed, B.S., Baghdad University, B.A., Baghdad University; M.Ed., Texas A&M University Chair of Advisory Committee: Dr. G. Patrick Slattery The purpose of this interdisciplinary study was to explore the experiences of al- rihla of International Muslim Graduate Students and to compare them to those of the Medieval Muslim Travelers. This qualitative study expands on the sparse existing literature by providing a new perspective for International Muslim Graduate Students‘ experiences of al-rihla and their role as cultural agents through an autoethnographic account and in-depth interviews with international Muslim graduate students. The study also makes a comparison of al-rihla in search of knowledge between International Muslim Graduate Students and Medieval Muslim Travelers. The naturalistic paradigm of inquiry was used in this study to acquire and analyze data. The data were collected from three resources: the auto-ethnographic account of the researcher, in-depth interviews with seven international Muslim graduate students, and the al-rihla accounts of three Medieval Muslim Travelers. Data analysis showed that educational experiences of Muslim travelers, over time, have been strongly influenced by three major factors: 1) religious beliefs about iv knowledge and the search for knowledge, 2) culture and cultural identity, and 3) issues of political power and positionality. Discussions of the al-rihla of international Muslim graduate students include the role of institutions of higher education as places and spaces for public pedagogy that can eliminate cultural differences and bridge cultural gaps by raising awareness of Islam as a culture and the empowerment of international Muslim graduate students as cultural agents of peace. v DEDICATION In the Name of Allah The Most Gracious, the Most Merciful “Read! In the Name of your Lord Who has created (all that exists). He has created man from a clot (a piece of thick coagulated blood). Read! And your Lord is the Most Generous. Who has taught (the writing) by the pen. He has taught man that which he knew not.” (Qur’an 30: 96) To the memory of my late father, may Allah have mercy on his soul, and mother who cultivated an everlasting love of knowledge and the search for it into my heart and soul. It is because of this passion to learn that I was able to embark on an al-rihla toward my doctoral degree. To the memory of my late father from whom I learned steadfastness and courage and to my mother from whom I learned what it means to become a mother, I dedicate this work and my doctoral degree. vi ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I offer my sincere gratitude to my advisor and doctoral committee chair, Professor G. Patrick Slattery. Throughout my dissertation journey, Dr. Slattery stood beside me both encouraging and supporting my line of inquiry and guiding me through his knowledge and wisdom. I am eternally grateful for him for allowing me to bring this study to light. I am thankful for his professionalism, love of the field of education, and inspiration to delve into new waters in scholarly research. I would also like to thank my committee members, Dr. Janet Hammer, Dr. Elsa Gonzalez, Dr. Patricia Larke, and Dr. Akel Ismail Kahera, for providing me their expertise, advice, and support. My sincere thanks also go to each of the seven International Muslim Graduate Students whose voices, perceptions, and experiences of al-rihla have made this study possible. A special thanks to my Iraqi professors overseas at Baghdad University, Professor Raya Al-Naksahabandi, Professor Munthir Al-Abusi, and Professor Abdel wahid Muslat, for their continuous support during my al-rihla in pursuing my doctoral degree in the U.S. My deepest thanks and gratitude go to my mother and dear sister, Amaal, in Baghdad, to my brothers Khayal and Jamaal, to my sons Ammar, Jan, Abdullah, and to my nephew Ahmed for their love, support, and belief in me. vii Finally, a special thanks to my friends, Abir Hashim, Zainab Laith, Zaynab Sadik, Aweeza Dhahir, and Dhamia Dawood, for their friendship and support throughout this journey. viii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ABSTRACT .............................................................................................................. iii DEDICATION .......................................................................................................... v ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ......................................................................................... vi TABLE OF CONTENTS .......................................................................................... vii LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................... x CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION ................................................................................... 1 Background of the Study ................................................................... 3 Statement of the Problem .................................................................. 8 Purpose of the Study ......................................................................... 10 Research Questions ........................................................................... 10 Theoretical Framework ..................................................................... 11 Significance of the Study .................................................................. 14 Assumptions of the Study ................................................................. 15 Definition of Terms ........................................................................... 15 Limitations of the Study .................................................................... 20 II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ......................................................... 23 Traveling and the Journey Theme ..................................................... 23 Theory ............................................................................................... 25 Knowledge in Islam .......................................................................... 51 Medieval Muslim Society ................................................................. 54 Medieval Muslim Travelers .............................................................. 62 Empirical Research ........................................................................... 73 Discussion and Gaps in the Literature ............................................... 82 III METHODOLOGY .................................................................................. 84 Naturalistic Paradigm ........................................................................ 84 Research Design ................................................................................ 88 Data Collection .................................................................................. 95 Data Analysis .................................................................................... 104 Ensuring Trustworthiness .................................................................. 109 ix CHAPTER Page Working Hypotheses ......................................................................... 113 IV DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS ..................................................... 115 Data Presentation and Findings ......................................................... 115 Autoethnographic Data Presentation ................................................. 116 Discussion ....................................................................................... 126 Interview Data Presentation .............................................................. 128 Medieval Muslim Travelers Data Presentation ................................. 149 IMGS‘ and MMT‘ Al-rihla Comparison ........................................... 188 Discussion ......................................................................................... 194 General Discussion…………………………………………………… 203 V SUMMARY, DISCUSSION, IMPLICATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ........................................................................ 206 Summary ........................................................................................... 206 Discussion ......................................................................................... 209 Additional Conclusions ..................................................................... 222 Implications ....................................................................................... 224 Recommendation for Future Studies ................................................