In Vedic Sanskrit, the more commonly used, literal meaning of the Sanskrit word yoga wwhichhich is "to add", "to join", "to unite", or "to attach" from the root yuj, already had a much more figurative sesense,nse, where the yoking or harnessing of oxen or horses takes on broader meanings such as "employment,"employment, use, application, performance" (compare the figurative uses of "to harness" as in "to put something to some use"). All further developments of the sense of thithiss word are post-Vedic. More prosaic moods such asas "exertion", "endeavour", "zeal" and "diligence" are also found in Epic Sanskrit.[citation needed] There are very many compound words containing yog in Sanskrit. Yoga can take on meanings such as "connection", "contact", "method", "application", "addition" and "performance". For example, guṇṇá-á- yoga means "contact with a cord"; cchakrá-yogahakrá-yoga has a medical sense of "applying a splintsplint or similar instrument by means of pulleys (in case of dislocation of the thigh)"; chandrá-yoga has the astronomicastronomicalal sense of "conjunction of the moon with a constellatconstellation";ion"; puṃṃ-yoga is a grammatical term expressing "connection or relation with a man", etc. Thus, bhakti-yoga means "devoted attachment" in the monotheistic Bhakti movement. The term kriyā-yoga has a grammatical sense, meaning "connection with a verb". But the same compound is also given a technical meaning in the YogaYoga Sutras (2.1), designating the "practical" aspects of the philosophy, i.e. the "union with the Supreme" due toto performance of duties in everyday life[13] InIn Hindu philosophy, the word yoga is used to refer to one of the six orthodox (āstika) schools of Hindu philosophy.*note 1+ The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali are often labelled as Rāja yoga.*15+ According to Pāṇini, a 6th century BCE Sanskrit grammarian, the term yoga can be derived from either of two roots, yujir yoga (to yoke) or yuj samādhau (to concentrate).*16+ In the context of the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, the root yuj samādhau (to concentrate) is considered by traditional commentatorscommentators as the correct etymology.*17+ In accordance with Pāṇini, Vyasa (c. 4th or 5th century CE), who wrote ththee first commentary on the Yoga Sutras,*18+ states that yoga means samādhi (concentration).*19+ In other texts and contexts, such as the Bhagavad Gītā and the Hatha Yoga Pradipika, the word yoga has been used in conformity with yujir yoge (to yoke).[20] Someone who practices yoga or follows the yoga philphilosophyosophy with a high level of commitmentcommitment is called a yogi or yogini.[21] Purpose Generally put, yoga is a disciplined method utilized for attattainingaining a goal.[14] The ultimate goal of YoYogaga is moksha though the exact definition of what form this taketakess depends on the philosophical or theological system with which it is conjugated. Bhakti schools of Vaishnavism combine yoga with devotion ttoo enjoy an eternal presence of VVishnu.[22]ishnu.[22] In Shaiva theolotheology,gy, yoga is used to uniteunite kundalini with Shiva.[23] Mahabharata defines the purpose of yoga as the expeexperiencerience of Brahman or Ātman pervading all things.[24] In the specific sense of Patanjali's Yoga Sutras, yyogaoga is defined as citta-vṛṛtti-nirodhaḥḥ (the cessation of the perturbations of consciousness).[14] This is described by Patanjali as the necessary cconditionondition for transcending discursive knowledge and to be one with the divinely understood "spirit" ("purusha"): "Absolute freedom occurs when the lucidity of material nature and spirit are in pure equilibrium."[25] In the Yoga Sutras, Patanjali indicates that the ultimultimateate goal of yoga is a state of permanent peace or Kaivalya.[26] Apart from the spiritual goals the physical postureposturess of yoga are used to alleviate healthhealth problems, reduce stress and make the spine supple in contempocontemporaryrary times. Yoga is also usedused as a complete exercise program and physical therapy routine.[27] History Prehistory Male figure in a crossed legs posture on a mold of a seal from the Indus valley ccivilizationivilization Several seals discovered at Indus Valley Civilization sites, dating to the mid 3rd millennium BCE, depdepictict figures in positions resembling a common yoga or meditation pose, showing "a form of ritual disciplinediscipline,, suggesting a precursor of yoga," accoraccordingding to archaarchaeologisteologist Gregory Possehl.[28] RamaprasadRamaprasad Chanda, who supervised Indus Valley Civilization excavations, states that, “Not only the seated deities on somsomee of the Indus seals are in yoga posture and bear witneswitnesss to the prevalence of yoga in the IIndusndus Valley Civilization in that remote age, the ststandinganding deitideitieses on the seals also show Kayotsarga (a standing posture of meditation) position. It is a posture not of sitting but of standing."[29] Some type of connection between the Indus Valley seals and later yoga and meditation practices is speculated upon by many scholars, though there is no coconclusivenclusive evievidence.[notedence.[note 2] Ascetic practices (tapas), concentration and bodily postures used by Vedic priests to conduct yajna (Vedic ritual of fire sacrifice) might have been prprecursorsecursors to yoga.[note 3] Vratya, a grogroupup of ascetics mentioned in the Atharvaveda, emphasized on bodily postures which probably evolved into yogic asanas.[37] Early Vedic Samhitas also contain references to other group ascetics such as, Munis, the Keśin, and Vratyas.*39+ Techniques for controlling breath and vvitalital energies are mentioned in the Brahmanas (ritualistic texts of the Vedic corpus, c. 1000 – –800 BCE) and the Atharvaveda.[37][40] Nasadiya Sukta of the Rig Veda suggests the presencpresencee of an early contemplative tradition.[note 4] Alexander Wynne, author of The Origin of Buddhist MMeditation,editation, observes that formless meditationmeditation and elemental meditation might have originated in the Upanishadic tradition.[43] The earliest referreferenceence to meditation is in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, one of the oldest Upanishads.[39] Chandogya Upanishad describes the five kinds of vital energies (prana). Concepts used later in many yoga traditions such aass internal sound and veins (nadis) are also described in the UUpanishad.[37]panishad.[37] Taittiriya UpaUpanishadnishad defines yoga as the mastery of body and senses.[44] Preclassical era Diffused pre-philosophical speculations of yoga begin to emerge in the textextsts of c. 500 – –200 BCE such as the middle Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita and Mokshadharma of the Mahabharata. The terms samkhya and yoga in these texts rreferefer to spiritual methodolmethodologiesogies rather than the philosophicalphilosophical systems which developed centuries later.[45] Upanishads The term "yoga" first appears in the Hindu scripturscripturee Katha Upanishad (a primary UpanishadUpanishad c. 400 BCE) where it is defined as the steady control of the sesenses,nses, which along with ccessessationation of mental activity, leads to the supreme state.[39][note 55]] Katha UpaniUpanishadshad integrates the monism of early UpanishadsUpanishads with concepts of samkhya and yoga. It defines various levels of existence according to their proximity to the innermost being Ātman. Yoga is therefore seen aass a process of interiorization or ascent of consciousness.[47][48] It is the earliest literary work tthathat highlights the fundamentals of yoga. Shvetashvatara Upanishad (c. 400-200 BCE) elaborates on the rerelationshiplationship between thought and breath, control of mind, and the benefits of yoga.[48] Like the Katha Upanishad the transcendent Self is sseeneen as the goal of yoga. This text also recommends meditatmeditationion on Om as a path to liberation.[49]liberation.[49] Maitrayaniya Upanishad (c. 300 BCE) formalizes the sixfold form of yoga.[48] Physiological theories of latlaterer yoga mmakeake an appearance in this text.[50][51] Further systemasystematizationtization of yoga is continued in the Yoga UpanishadUpanishadss of the Atharvaveda.[52] The concepts of Chakra and Kundalini are first mentioned in these Upanishads.[53] Bhagavad Gita Krishna narrating the Gita to Arjuna. Main article: Bhagavad Gita The Bhagavad Gita ('Song of the Lord'), uses the tetermrm "yoga" extensively in a variety of waways.ys. In addition to an entire chapter (c(ch.h. 6) dedicated to traditiontraditionalal yoga practice, includingincluding meditation,[54] it introduces three prominent types of yoga:[note 6] Karma yoga: The yoga of action.[note 7] Bhakti yoga: The yoga of devotion.[note 8] Jnana yoga: The yoga of knowledge.[note 9] In Chapter 2 of the Bhagavad Gita, Krishna explains to Arjuna about the essence of yoga as practiced in daily lives: :: ।। :: ।।।। (yoga-sthaḥḥ kuru karmani sanyugam tyaktvā dhananjay siddhy-asiddhyoḥḥ samo bhutvā samatvam yoga ucyate) - Bhagavad Gita 2.48 A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada translates it as "Be steadfast in yoga (yoga-sthaḥḥ), O Arjuna. Perform your duty (kuru karmani) and abandon all attachment (sangam) to success oorr failure (siddhy- asiddhyoḥḥ). Such evenness of mind (samatvam) is called yoga."[59] Madhusudana Sarasvati (b. circa 1490) divided the Gita into three sections, with the first six chapterchapterss dealing with Karma yoga, the middle six with Bhakti yoga, and the last six with Jnana (knowledge(knowledge).[60]).[60] Other commentators ascribe a different 'yoga' to eaeachch chapter, delineating eighteen