Video Games as Deweyan Worlds: A Desktop/Mobile VR Game-based Intervention to Improve Visuospatial Self-efficacy in Middle School Students Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University By Irina Kuznetcova, MA Graduate Program in Educational Studies The Ohio State University 2020 Dissertation Committee Dr. Michael Glassman, Advisor Dr. Tzu-Jung Lin, Co-Advisor Dr. Bryan Warnick, Committee Member Copyrighted by Irina Kuznetcova 2020 2 Abstract Visuospatial (VS) skills, or one’s ability to mentally manipulate information about objects’ positions, relations, orientation, and transformations in space, are one of the cornerstones of STEM enrollment, retention, and achievement. Low level of visuospatial skills may deter some people from joining the STEM workforce or complicate their learning experience. In addition, gender disparities in VS performance contribute to an overall gender gap that has been an ongoing issue for many STEM disciplines. There is evidence to suggest VS skills are malleable and can be improved through training. As of 2020, however, very few comprehensive and readily available training programs exist, particularly for younger age groups and explicitly grounded in pedagogical frameworks. The current study proposes a new direction of VS training focusing on the development of visuospatial self-efficacy, or one’s confidence that they can complete specific VS tasks. The proposed intervention is built on the intersection of three disciplines: educational psychology, educational philosophy, and game design. Video games are explored as a promising medium for the implementation of educational principles proposed by John Dewey whose philosophy along with the theory of self-efficacy (developed by Albert Bandura) informed the development of an intervention game. The collaborative, desktop/mobile Virtual Reality game called Bond (available for download at learnspatially.com) was designed to improve visuospatial self-efficacy in middle ii school students. A total of 169 students across 11 classrooms in 3 middle schools in a mid-western city in the United States participated in the study. The intervention took place in an elective STEM class. The participants in the experimental condition (n=96, 6 classrooms) played the intervention game during 4 sessions over the course of 2 weeks, while the participants in the control condition (n=73, 5 classrooms) engaged in typical class activities. Collected data included participants’ VS self-efficacy and performance right before and right after the intervention, grades in STEM courses at the start and the end of the school semester, and demographic information. The results revealed that the intervention significantly increased students’ VS self-efficacy but not their VS performance or grades in STEM courses. The implications and significance of the findings are discussed along with practical guidelines for designing serious games in education. iii Dedication To Michael, the most incredible mentor in the world who is like a parent to me. To Tzu-Jung, the kindest and most patient adviser ever. To Nastya, my sister by heart. To my mom, dad, and sister for showing their love even when we are an ocean apart. To Shantanu, Logan, and Chris, who put me back on my feet when I lost hope. To Gosha and Viola, who accept me the way I am through the good and bad. To Qiannan, Ziye, and Marvin for making our research lab a happy place. To Olga Glotova and Dmitry Vertkin, the mentors whose lessons and support I remember even years later. And to Ann, my American mother and life mentor whose love helped me become a better version of myself. To everyone affected by the global coronavirus crisis – we shall overcome! iv Acknowledgments This dissertation and my entire doctoral career would not have been possible without the kindness and overwhelming support of Michael Glassman, my adviser, my friend, and the most influential mentor in my life. Michael, you are the light that guided me through the best and worst of times in the past five years, and I am forever grateful for how much you have done for me. I also want to thank Tzu-Jung Lin, my co-adviser, whose kind but firm guidance made me into the scholar I am today. Shantanu, Logan, Qiannan, Ziye, and Marvin, my research team who play-tested my game, woke up at 6 am for weeks in a row to assist me with data collection, and made me look forward to every lab meeting – you all made this thesis a reality. I thank you with all my heart for the great time we spent together. I want to thank Nick who was my coding mentor, my best friend, and spent hours helping me with the game and supporting me through challenging times. You were the reason I felt confident to start this project in the first place and saw it through, and I will never forget that. To Ann – thank you for giving me the emotional support that was much needed in this difficult year. You are the reason why I was able to keep going even when I felt like giving up. v Vita 2018..............................................M.A. Educational Psychology, The Ohio State University 2015..............................................B.A. Linguistics and Intercultural Communication, The Ohio State University Summer 2019-Spring 2020...........Presidential Fellow, The Ohio State University Fall 2016-Spring 2019...................Graduate Teaching Assistant, Dennis Learning Center, The Ohio State University Fall 2015-Summer 2016................University Fellow, The Ohio State University Publications Kuznetcova, I., Glassman, M., & Lin, T. J. (2019). Multi-user virtual environments as a pathway to distributed social networks in the classroom. Computers & Education, 130, 26-39. Kuznetcova, I., & Glassman, M. (2018). Virtual reality: Its transformative potential. In Benade L., Jackson M. (Eds.), Transforming education: Design, technology, government (pp. 199-211). London: Sage. vi Kuznetcova, I., Teeple, J., Glassman, M. (2018). The dialectic of the avatar: Developing in-world identities in Second Life. Journal of Gaming & Virtual Worlds, 10(1), 59- 71. Kuznetcova, I., Lin, T. J., Glassman, M. (2020). Teacher presence in a different light: Authority shift in Multi-User Virtual Environments. Technology, Knowledge and Learning. Online first. Fields of Study Major Field: Educational Studies Area of Specialization: Educational Psychology vii Table of Contents Abstract ............................................................................................................................... ii Dedication .......................................................................................................................... iv Acknowledgments............................................................................................................... v Vita ..................................................................................................................................... vi List of Tables ..................................................................................................................... xi List of Figures ................................................................................................................... xii Chapter 1. Introduction ....................................................................................................... 1 Chapter 2. Literature Review ............................................................................................. 5 Visuospatial skills ........................................................................................................... 5 The Importance of visuospatial literacy in the 21st century ....................................... 5 The definition and structure of VS skills .................................................................... 7 VS skills and academic outcomes in STEM ............................................................. 14 Gender differences in VS ability............................................................................... 16 The ‘nature’ perspective on the gender gap in VS ability .................................... 17 The ‘nurture’ and ‘nature-nurture’ perspective on the gender gap in VS ability .. 18 Developing VS skills ................................................................................................ 20 Summary ................................................................................................................... 23 Self-efficacy .................................................................................................................. 25 Self-efficacy as a theoretical construct ..................................................................... 25 Visuospatial self-efficacy.......................................................................................... 29 VSSE as a foundation for spatial interventions ........................................................ 31 Summary ................................................................................................................... 33 Games and Virtual Reality as a medium for VS training ............................................. 35 The history of games and Virtual Reality in education ............................................ 35 Defining Virtual Reality and serious games ............................................................. 35 The history of Virtual Reality and games ................................................................. 39 Virtual Reality: