SSStttooonnnyyy BBBrrrooooookkk UUUnnniiivvveeerrrsssiiitttyyy The official electronic file of this thesis or dissertation is maintained by the University Libraries on behalf of The Graduate School at Stony Brook University. ©©© AAAllllll RRRiiiggghhhtttsss RRReeessseeerrrvvveeeddd bbbyyy AAAuuuttthhhooorrr... On the “Border Line of Tragedy”: White Slavery, Moral Protection, and the Travelers’ Aid Society of New York, 1885-1917 A Dissertation Presented by Eric Carmin Cimino to The Graduate School in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in History Stony Brook University August 2012 Copyright by Eric C. Cimino 2012 Stony Brook University The Graduate School Eric Carmin Cimino We, the dissertation committee for the above candidate for the Doctor of Philosophy degree, hereby recommend acceptance of this dissertation. Nancy Tomes – Dissertation Advisor Professor, History Department Susan Hinely – Chairperson of Defense Lecturer, History Department Larry Frohman Associate Professor, History Department Amanda Frisken Associate Professor, American Studies Department SUNY College at Old Westbury This dissertation is accepted by the Graduate School Charles Taber Interim Dean of the Graduate School ii Abstract of the Dissertation On the “Border Line of Tragedy”: White Slavery, Moral Protection, and the Travelers’ Aid Society of New York, 1885-1917 by Eric Carmin Cimino Doctor of Philosophy in History Stony Brook University 2012 This dissertation examines the travelers’ aid movement of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries through a case study of the Travelers’ Aid Society of New York. Travelers’ aid was part of a larger movement for moral reform that arose as a response to social problems unleashed by industrialization, urban growth, and mass immigration. Moral reformers believed that vices such as prostitution were wreaking havoc on individuals, communities, and, consequently, on the national fabric. To combat prostitution, reformers launched a variety of campaigns in both the United States and Europe, one of which targeted a practice known as “white slavery,” i.e. the coercion of European and Euro-American (“white”) women into prostitution. The Travelers’ Aid Society of New York (TAS) was founded in 1907 as an anti- white slavery organization. Its mission was to prevent female travelers from falling victim to white slavery by providing social work to them at train stations and piers. Female agents of the TAS searched for disoriented travelers (immigrant and native-born, working- and middle-class) in the hopes of reaching them before they were in any immediate danger. Agents escorted iii travelers to a variety of locations, including affordable lodging facilities; provided them with resources such as food; and gave assistance in finding employment. Agents also helped travelers navigate through New York’s complex transportation system. This study of the TAS supports an interpretation of social welfare that integrates two fundamental, often competing, concepts: discipline and empowerment. I argue that the TAS’s disciplinary elements were moderate, which allowed it to frequently act as a productive mediator between travelers and their new environment. This was especially true during the TAS’s period as a women’s organization, 1906-1910. We see more evidence of discipline in the ensuing period when the TAS transitioned to a mixed-sex organization led by men and its anti-white slavery activism became more pronounced. The TAS, like most of its contemporaries, exaggerated the threat of white slavery, which led to instances where agents were overaggressive in their handling of cases involving female travelers and unknown men. However, its emphasis on white slavery should not obscure the prevalence of crime at the city’s transportation hubs. Subsequently, TAS vigilance also thwarted criminal attempts on women’s bodies and property. iv I dedicate this dissertation to: My late grandparents Frank and Josephine Cimino, Percy and Marion Farr Suzanne and Anya and to Oliver, my little historian v Table of Contents List of Tables………………………………………………………………………….vii List of Abbreviations…………………………………………………………………viii Acknowledgments……………………………………………………………………..ix Introduction…………………………………………………………………………….1 Chapter 1: The Origins of Travelers’ Aid in England and the United States, 1885-1907………………………………………………………………....23 Chapter 2: The Travelers’ Aid Society of New York, 1903-1910…………………....44 Chapter 3: Encounters Between Agents and Travelers, 1906-1910…………...…..….80 Chapter 4: Building a National Travelers’ Aid Movement: Orin Baker and the Travelers’ Aid Societies of New York and California, 1910-1917……...120 Chapter 5: Agents, Titanic Survivors, and White Slavery, 1911-1916……………...155 Epilogue……………………………………………………………………………...199 Bibliography……………………………………………………………………….....215 vi List of Tables Table 1: Number of Travelers Helped, by Age and Sex, May 1907-1910…………………91 Table 2: Travelers Helped, by Nationality/Ethnicity……………………………………...101 Table 3: Travelers Helped, by Region…………………………………………………….102 Table 4: Steamships and Travelers Met per Line…………………………………………107 Table 5: “How Disposed Of,” May 1906-1910…………………………………………...108 Table 6: Officers of the Travelers’ Aid Society, 1911-1916……………………………...128 Table 7: TAS Agents Definitely or Likely Identified by Census Records………………..161 Table 8: Train Stations Covered by the Travelers’ Aid Society, 1916…………………....166 vii List of Abbreviations BII New York State Bureau of Industries and Immigration Bulletin National Travelers Aid Society Bulletin Committee Travelers’ Aid Committee (New York) COS Charity Organization Society IB International Bureau for the Suppression of the White Slave Traffic JAPGW Jewish Association for the Protection of Girls and Women London TAS London Travelers’ Aid Society NCJW National Council of Jewish Women New York CJW New York Council of Jewish Women NTAS National Travelers’ Aid Society NYATN New York Anti-Trafficking Network PPIE Panama-Pacific International Exhibition SSC Southern Sociological Congress TA travelers’ aid TAS-California Travelers’ Aid Society of California TAS-NY or TAS Travelers’ Aid Society of New York TVPA Trafficking Victims Protection Act WRC Women’s Relief Committee YMCA Young Men’s Christian Association YWCA or YW Young Women’s Christian Association viii Acknowledgments My education as an historian began at the University of Massachusetts-Boston in September, 2001. I wish to thank Paul Bookbinder for guiding me through my M.A. Thesis on the Bauhaus, which was my first piece of serious scholarship. Spencer Di Scalla taught me a great deal about how to read and write history, and his interest in my work instilled confidence that I could continue on for a Ph.D. I would like to thank Chris Sellers for his enthusiastic acceptance letter into Stony Brook University’s doctoral program in history. While at Stony Brook, I had the pleasure to work with Young-Sun Hong and Larry Frohman, who were my early mentors in how to do history at the Ph.D. level. In 2006, I took my oral examination in the comfort of their home and afterwards we all happily dined on homemade apple pie. It was a great learning experience to be a teaching assistant for Susan Hinely, who shared with me her immense knowledge of women’s history. Alice Ritscherle provided a kind shoulder to lean on during a period of doubt that crept up on me after my oral exams. I never had a chance to take a class with April Masten, but her encouraging comments at a conference signaled that I was going in the right direction with my dissertation. Nancy Tomes gets a special thank you for trusting me that a dissertation topic on travelers’ aid was feasible. She was incredibly supportive of my work and was an expert guide throughout the dissertating process. Another thank you goes to my dissertation committee of Larry, Susan, and Amanda Frisken. I appreciate all of their feedback, which strengthened the dissertation and will continue to inform my work. Roxanne Fernandez helped me navigate all of ix the paperwork that had to be submitted before my defense, ensuring that it was completed correctly and on-time. I enjoyed sharing an office with Eike Reichardt. Our talks helped me develop a stronger sense of the historian’s craft. It was also a pleasure going to graduate school and studying with James Nichols, Ari Sclar, Neil Buffett, Jeff Hall, Ron Van Cleef, Luke Feder, Kraig Larkin, Jon Anzalone, Mike Murphy and Consuelo Figueroa. Although we were both Stony Brook grad students, I didn’t really get to know Brenda Elsey until we bumped into each other at a party in Jackson Heights, Queens. We were the only two attendees who brought our children and therefore spent most of the time looking after them in an isolated room away from the festivities. We, and our families, have been friends ever since. Over brunch one weekend, Brenda offered some sound advice on how to begin my dissertation, which helped get this project off the ground for good. As an adjunct, I have met many helpful professors who have supported my teaching and research. Ed Bever at SUNY Old Westbury gave me my first adjuncting gig and generously arranged for two adjunct “sabbaticals” so that I could finish my dissertation. At LaGuardia Community College, Lily Shohat has been a marvelous department chair. Professors George Sussman, John Shean, and Timothy Coogan have also been generous in sharing their teaching expertise with me. The research for this dissertation was conducted primarily at the New-York Historical