Emplacing Displacement: Cultural Landscapes of Refugee-hosting in Ukwimi, Zambia By Angela M. Gray Submitted to the graduate degree program in Geography and the Graduate Faculty of the University of Kansas in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. __________________________________________ Garth A. Myers, Committee Chair __________________________________________ J. Christopher Brown __________________________________________ Elizabeth MacGonagle __________________________________________ Shannon O’Lear __________________________________________ Omofolabo Ajayi-Soyinka Date Defended: September 4, 2009 The Dissertation Committee for Angela Gray certifies that this is the approved version of the following dissertation: Emplacing Displacement: Cultural Landscapes of Refugee-hosting in Ukwimi, Zambia __________________________________________ Garth A. Myers, Committee Chair __________________________________________ J. Christopher Brown __________________________________________ Elizabeth MacGonagle __________________________________________ Shannon O’Lear __________________________________________ Omofolabo Ajayi-Soyinka Date approved: September 12, 2009 2 Abstract In response to calls for increased understanding of and solutions to the issue of protracted refugee situations, this dissertation examines the social and spatial implications of a long history of refugee-hosting in Eastern Province, Zambia. In order to broaden our understanding of displacement and place- making, I pay particular attention to refugee and host community interaction in and around the former refugee settlement in Ukwimi, Zambia. Established in 1987, Ukwimi Refugee Settlement hosted over 20,000 Mozambicans for nearly a decade. After the repatriation of Mozambican refugees, Ukwimi evolved into a government-run agricultural resettlement scheme until it’s re-opening as a refugee camp for Angolan refugees in 2001. Through theoretically-grounded fieldwork in eastern Zambia, I explore refugee-hosting as a dynamic interaction between and among refugee relief organizations, development initiatives, host communities, and refugee populations. In doing so, I analyze how refugee and host community relationships operate, and shift, within particular political, gendered, and historical contexts, thereby creating distinct cultural landscapes of refugee-hosting and resettlement which are constantly “in motion” and emplacing displacement. 3 Acknowledgements Although I am all too aware that I will never be capable of articulating either the depth or breadth of my gratitude to the innumerable individuals, groups, organizations, and institutions that each made the completion of this dissertation possible, I can take some space at the start of this journey to enumerate the innumerable and name the unnamable… I would like to begin by acknowledging the Department of Geography at The University of Kansas, whose financial support made graduate studies a possibility for me. Additionally, I must acknowledge and commend the Kansas African Studies Center for always providing me with resources, opportunities, and most importantly, community I would also like to thank my fellow graduate students who each made this process such a productive and engaging experience. This dissertation is the product of field research made possible by grants from the American Association of Geographers Dissertation Research Grant and the Fulbright Foundation. The research was conducted in affiliation with the University of Zambia (UNZA) in Lusaka. I owe a special debt of gratitude to my fellow researchers and advisors at UNZA who made my affiliation and work possible, especially Imasiku Nyambe, Wilma Nchito, Simon Nkemba, and the Department of Geography. In addition, the process of writing this dissertation upon my return from the field was only made possible through generous funding from the Graduate Studies office at The University of Kansas. I could not have finished this project without the constant encouragement of my entire committee. I would like to thank Chris Brown, Omofolabo Ajayi- Soyinka, Elizabeth MacGonagle, and Shannon O’Lear for providing constructive comments and valuable insights throughout this process. I would especially like to express my gratitude to Garth Myers for encouraging my work from its beginning, cultivating my development as a geographer both in and out of the classroom, and continually pushing me to create new connections within my work – all while being (and remaining) a source of great music, stories, road trips, and friendship. In Zambia, the list of those who extended their support and opened themselves up to my constant inquiries is entirely too long to share in this particular forum. I must, however, express my gratitude to a small percentage of them. To begin, my time in Lusaka would not have been possible without the generous support of the Masialeti family who welcomed me into their home. I am particularly indebted to the friends and extended family I found in Lusaka, especially 4 Masiliso Masialeti, Kasonde Bwayla, Namakau Subulwa, Wamupu Noyoo, Mubiana Subulwa, Tom Chaisa, and Michelo Munanyimbo. In the course of my discussions with government officials, NGO representatives, and other institutional actors in Zambia, six individuals provided invaluable guidance and information – Dominic Minyoi, Eularia Zulu-Syamujaye, Brian Harrigan, Allan Musumali, Jere Getachew, and Maniford Mulongo. When it comes to expressing my gratitude to the people of Ukwimi, I can not even begin to put into words the number and the ways in which those at Ukwimi altered my course and helped me to understand their larger story. The individuals are too numerous to list and in most cases wish to remain anonymous. I am deeply indebted to all of the people the people at Ukwimi who shared their lives with me, refugees and hosts alike. Their personal experiences taught me innumerable lessons and indeed formed my understanding of how displacement is emplaced. My own “emplacement” at Ukwimi would not have been possible without the company of Mato Kanenga, who friendship supplemented the entire process with needed breaks, infinite support, and continuous laughter. To my family in Naloyela – Maria Namakau (Bo Ma), Anna Sinyama (Bo Ndate), Regina Monde, and Grace Pumulo – all I can say to each of you for the gift you’ve given is nitumezi ahulu again and again. I am grateful for the constant support and encouragement of my parents not only throughout this process, but also in all that I do. I am also deeply indebted to my brother, Ryan, for his unvarying patience, advice, and friendship. A huge thank you to Gabran, Chase, and Logan, whose endless curiosity, imagination, and honest wonder inspire me to continually ask questions, explore new ideas, and share what I’ve learned in the process. Last, but most certainly not least, none of this would have to come to completion without the encouragement, concern, constant conversation, and love of my partner in all of this, Mushe Subulwa. As I’ve told you before, I study our conversation like a map ‘cuz I know there is strength in the differences between us and I know there is comfort where we overlap. Zikomo kwambiri! 5 Table of Contents Abstract 3 Acknowledgements 4 List of Tables 7 List of Figures 8 List of Photographs 9 List of Maps 10 Chapter 1: Approaching Ukwimi 11 Chapter 2: Placing Displacement 29 Chapter 3: Unpacking the Institutional Framework 59 Chapter 4: Overview of refugee-hosting in Zambia 84 Chapter 5: Refugees at Nyimba Refugee Camp 127 Chapter 6: Emplacing Ukwimi Refugee Settlement 157 Chapter 7: Reinventing Ukwimi 201 Chapter 8: Refugees “Return” to Ukwimi 218 Chapter 9: Exploring Alternative Emplacements 241 References 251 Appendix A: African Signatories to Refugee Conventions 272 Appendix B: Refugee “Have Nothing” Fundraising Imagery 274 Appendix C: Agricultural Schemes in Zambia 275 Appendix D: Ukwimi Farmer’s Association & Land Titling 278 6 List of Tables Table 1: Ravenstein’s Laws of Migration 32 Table 2: Important Dates in the Development of Refugee Studies 45 Table 3: Disciplinary Backgrounds of Authors Published in the Journal of Refugee Studies 53 Table 4: Refugee-focused Articles in Geography Journals 54 Table 5: Polish Refugee Camps in Zambia 97 Table 6: 1991 Election Results 118 Table 7: 1996 Election Results 122 Table 8: MMD Share of Votes Cast 124 Table 9: 2006 Election Results 125 Table 10: Soil Suitability 170 Table 11: Beneficiaries of Zambia Initiative 248 7 List of Figures Figure 1: Lee’s Push and Pull Factor Concept of Migration 33 Figure 2: Lee’s Migration Hypotheses 35 Figure 3: Zelinsky’s Mobility Transition Model 37 Figure 4: Lewis’ Rural-Urban Migration Model 39 Figure 5: Todaro’s Mathematical Migration Model 39 Figure 6: Rogge’s Refugee Typology 47 8 List of Photographs Photograph 1: Ukwimi Refugee Settlement Entrance Sign 11 Photograph 2: Former NGO offices & my new home 22 Photograph 3: ICARA II-funded road to Ukwimi 77 Photograph 4: Mozambique-Zambia Border 162 Photograph 5: Mozambique-Zambia Border 162 Photograph 6: Rocky Plot Allocated for Agricultural Use 172 Photograph 7: New Village Name Toponymy at URS 184 Photograph 8: New Secondary School 191 Photograph 9: New Primary School 191 Photograph 10: Ukwimi Market 191 Photograph 11: Ukwimi Social Center 191 Photograph 12: Ukwimi Farmer’s Association Office 195 Photograph 13: Ukwimi B Shop 196 Photograph 14: Ukwimi Resettlement Scheme 204 Photograph 15: Mulinda’s Radio Repair 206 Photograph 16: Chilicheka’s 206