An Analysis of Game-Based Learning for the Design of Digital Science Games Daniel Perry A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy University of Washington 2016 Reading Committee: Cecilia R. Aragon, Chair Sean Munson Kate Starbird Jennifer Turns Program Authorized to Offer Degree: Human Centered Design & Engineering © Copyright 2016 Daniel Perry ii University of Washington Abstract An Analysis of Game-Based Learning for the Design of Digital Science Games Daniel Perry Chair of the Supervisory Committee: Associate Professor Cecilia R. Aragon Human Centered Design & Engineering As science becomes increasingly data-driven, there is a need to prepare the next generation of youth with the wide variety of skills and tools necessary for future scientific careers. In this dissertation, I address the diverse gameplay capabilities present in youth, arguing that educators and designers can and should leverage these in the design of educational science games. I employ both quantitative and qualitative approaches to examine gameplay within the context of the bioinformatics game, MAX5. Two initial studies are presented showing that a player’s previous experience with a game’s genre and the types of messages shared between players during social gameplay are significant predictors for learning outcomes. A qualitative data analysis then identifies themes of gameplay that are compared and contrasted with existing theories to lay the building blocks for a new complex systems model of game- based learning. Components of this model exist within five interlinked layers: the input, the sensory sphere, the structural dynamics, semiotic translation, and memory-action patterns, all existing within a larger dynamic network of games and players. These research findings iii provide a means for game designers to broaden the participation of youth in the sciences by matching player capabilities with appropriate game elements and learning content. This research further highlights the need for more adaptive science games that reflect not only players’ varied capabilities, but also the increasingly multidisciplinary and collaborative nature of scientific practice. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would first like to thank the youth who participated as co-designers and contributed to game development over the many years of my research. Their voices and actions have taught me more than I could have ever hoped about play and learning. I am grateful for the guidance and support of my thesis adviser and mentor, Cecilia Aragon. Her enthusiasm and brilliance have been a continual inspiration for my own career and values as a researcher. I am ever grateful to my committee members – Sean Munson, Kate Starbird, Jennifer Turns, and Katie Davis – who have provided innumerable hours of thoughtful advice and stretched my thinking as a scholar. Thank you to the many colleagues and friends who have contributed to this research and my thinking at the University of Washington: Stephanie Cruz, Taylor Scott, Michael Brooks, Toni Ferro, Asmi Joshi, Aaron Lynch, Gabrielle Mehlman, Karin Hellman, Melissa Ritchtarik, Jonas Niedermuller, Alyssa-Cyre Oyadomari, and the students who have participated in the Games for Good Directed Research Group. I could not have done this without your help. I would like to especially acknowledge the work of John Robinson on the database for MAX5, and Ray Hong’s help in thinking through the theory and diagrams. I am also grateful for the invaluable feedback and advice from my friends, Sandra Dill, and Nicholas Drozdowicz in the editing process. Thank you to those who have provided their expertise in the design and evaluation of games and in the generation of instructional content, including: Suzanne Brainard, Jeanne Chowning, Tim Renz, and Mette Peters. v And last, but definitely not least, I would also like to thank my family for their support and understanding throughout the process. Lilly, you have been an inspiration for this work; watching you grow up with a sense of wonder, intelligence, and care for others, has taught me so much about all that is good in this world. This dissertation research has been supported by the National Science Foundation grant OCI-1135479 and by the University of Washington Graduate School Presidential Dissertation Award. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Figures ........................................................................................................................... x List of Tables ........................................................................................................................... xi Chapter 1. Introduction ............................................................................................................. 1 1.1 Motivation ....................................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Definitions of Terms ....................................................................................................... 4 1.3 The Trajectory of Research Questions ............................................................................ 5 1.4 Outline of the Dissertation .............................................................................................. 7 Chapter 2. Related Literature .................................................................................................. 10 2.1 Constructivist & Experiential Learning ........................................................................ 10 2.2 Participatory Design & Co-design in Serious Games ................................................... 11 2.3 Player Preferences in Games ........................................................................................ 13 2.4 Affect in Games ............................................................................................................ 14 2.5 STEM Games ................................................................................................................ 16 2.6 Game-Based Instructional Design ................................................................................ 18 2.7 Theories of Learning Styles & Intelligences ................................................................ 18 Chapter 3. A Bioinformatics Learning Game ......................................................................... 22 3.1 Game Architecture ........................................................................................................ 22 3.2 Bioinformatics Content ................................................................................................. 23 3.3 Parallel Computing Content .......................................................................................... 24 3.4 Game Environment Description ................................................................................... 25 Chapter 4. Methods ................................................................................................................. 28 4.1 Methodological Pluralism ............................................................................................. 29 4.2 Co-Design ..................................................................................................................... 31 4.3 Interviews ...................................................................................................................... 34 vii 4.4 Classroom Studies ......................................................................................................... 34 4.5 In-Game Data ................................................................................................................ 35 Chapter 5. Understanding & Evaluating Learning ................................................................. 36 5.1 Written Evaluations ...................................................................................................... 37 5.2 Classroom Games in Context ........................................................................................ 39 5.3 Device Considerations .................................................................................................. 40 5.4 Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 42 Chapter 6. The Role of Genre ................................................................................................. 43 6.1 Overview & Methods .................................................................................................... 45 6.2 Genres Played ............................................................................................................... 46 6.3 Analysis of Genre, Learning, & Affect ......................................................................... 47 6.4 Discussion of Differences in Play ................................................................................. 49 6.5 Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 50 Chapter 7. Interpersonal Game-Based Learning ..................................................................... 52 7.1 Background on Social Gameplay .................................................................................. 52 7.2 Overview & Research Questions .................................................................................. 53 7.3 Study Procedure ...........................................................................................................