00Leisure - Prelims 6/8/02 11:41 am Page i Leisure and Tourism Policy and Planning 00Leisure - Prelims 6/8/02 11:41 am Page ii 00Leisure - Prelims 6/8/02 11:41 am Page iii Leisure and Tourism Policy and Planning Second Edition A.J. Veal CABI Publishing 00Leisure - Prelims 29/8/03 15:44 Page iv CABI Publishing is a division of CAB International CABI Publishing CABI Publishing CAB International 875 Massachusetts Avenue Wallingford 7th Floor Oxon OX10 8DE Cambridge, MA 02139 UK USA Tel: +44 (0)1491 832111 Tel: +1 617 395 4056 Fax: +44 (0)1491 833508 Fax: +1 617 354 6875 E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected] Web site: www.cabi-publishing.org © CAB International 2002. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronically, mechanically, by photo- copying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owners. A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library, London, UK. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Veal, Anthony James. Leisure and tourism policy and planning / A.J. Veal.--2nd ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references (p. ). ISBN 0-85199-546-2 (alk. paper) 1. Leisure--Government policy--Great Britain. 2. Tourism--Government policy--Great Britain. 3. Recreation--Great Britain--Planning. I. Title. GV75 .V399 2002 790Ј.941--dc21 2002004506 ISBN 0 85199 546 2 First published 2002 Reprinted 2003 Typeset in Palatino by Columns Design Ltd, Reading Printed and bound in the UK by Biddles Ltd, Guildford and King’s Lynn. 00Leisure - Prelims 6/8/02 11:41 am Page v Contents List of Tables x List of Figures xii Preface xiv 1. Introduction 1 Introduction 1 Governments and Leisure and Tourism 1 Leisure and Tourism 3 Policy-making and Planning 4 Government Roles 6 Perspective 6 Content and Structure of the Book 9 Summary 10 2. Leisure and Tourism: Rights, Needs and Citizenship 11 Introduction 11 Human Rights 11 Definitions 11 History 11 Human rights declarations 13 Leisure rights 13 Sporting rights 15 Artistic and cultural rights 16 Tourism and travel rights 19 Group rights 19 Meaningfulness of rights declarations 22 Rights and freedoms 22 Other rights 23 The Rights of the Citizen 24 Needs 27 Taylor – uses of the word ‘need’ 28 Bradshaw/Mercer typology of need 28 Maslow’s hierarchy of need 29 Motivation theory and need 31 Marxist and neo-Marxist views on needs 31 Doyal and Gough and universal needs 32 Summary: Rights, Needs and Public Policy 33 v 00Leisure - Prelims 6/8/02 11:41 am Page vi vi Contents 3. Political Ideologies and the Role of the State 35 Introduction: the Role of Ideology 35 Conservatism 37 Liberalism 39 Marxism 41 Democratic Socialism 43 Social Democracy and ‘Third-way’ Politics 44 Feminism 46 Environmentalism 47 Antiglobalism 48 Summary: Ideologies, Leisure, Tourism and the State 50 4. The Market versus the State 53 Introduction 53 The Triumph of Capitalism 53 Mainstream Economics 54 Introduction 54 The workings of the market 54 The role of the state 55 Types of Market Failure 56 Public goods and services 57 Externalities/neighbourhood effects 58 Mixed goods 59 Merit goods 60 Option demand 61 Infant industries 61 Size of project 61 Natural monopoly 61 Market failure in summary 62 Social/Political Arguments for Government Involvement 62 Equity/humanitarian 62 Economic management/development 66 Incidental enterprise 66 Tradition 67 Mainstream Economics and Ideology 67 The Market versus the State – Issues 67 Profit-making or loss-making? 67 Government failure/government size 68 Provider or facilitator? 68 The context of globalization 69 The Market vs. the State – Recent History 70 Summary 71 5. Public Policy-making 73 Introduction 73 Formal Constitutions 73 Unitary vs. federal systems 74 Westminster vs. presidential models 74 The location of leisure and tourism 75 Formal decision-making procedures 76 Quangos, trusts, the non-profit sector, etc. 76 00Leisure - Prelims 6/8/02 11:41 am Page vii Contents vii Models of Decision-making 78 Power-based models 78 Rationality models 82 Public choice 83 Institutional approaches 84 Personality, cognition and information processing 84 Urban Regimes and Governance of the Local State 84 Summary 86 6. Leisure and Tourism Plans and Planning 88 Introduction 88 Strategic Planning 88 Guidelines 89 Local Cultural Strategies 90 Outdoor Recreation and Open Space 91 The Strategic Planning Process 91 Step 1. Establish terms of reference/brief 92 Step 2. Environmental appraisal 95 Step 3. Establish mission/goals 101 Step 4. Consultation with stakeholders 107 Step 5. Develop options 109 Step 6. Decide strategy 110 Step 7. Implementation 113 Steps 8/9. Monitoring, evaluation and feedback 113 Land-use Planning 114 7. Planning Methods 116 Introduction 116 History 116 Planning Techniques and Approaches 116 Standards of provision 118 Resource-based planning 122 Gross demand/market share (GDMS) approach 122 Spatial approaches 127 Hierarchies of facilities 132 Priority social-area analysis 133 The recreation opportunity spectrum 136 The matrix approach 137 The organic approach 141 The community-development approach 144 The issues approach 146 Conclusion 147 Summary 148 Appendix 7.1. Estimation of Facility Capacities 150 Appendix 7.2. Measuring Levels of Use of Facilities 152 8. Forecasting Leisure and Tourism Demand 154 Introduction 154 Forecasting What? 155 Demand-change Factors 157 Leisure and work time 158 Demographic change 159 00Leisure - Prelims 6/8/02 11:41 am Page viii viii Contents Income levels 159 Transport 161 Technological change 162 The activities of producers 164 The environment 164 Changing tastes and lifestyles 165 Changing attitudes and values 166 The media 167 Postindustrialism, postmodernity and globalization 167 Forecasting Techniques 168 Informed speculation 168 Asking the public 169 Asking the experts – the Delphi technique 169 Scenario writing 170 Time-series analysis 172 Spatial models 176 Cross-sectional analysis 177 Comparative method 182 Composite approaches 183 Summary 183 9. Economic Evaluation Techniques 185 Introduction 185 Cost–Benefit Analysis 186 Introduction 186 Measurables and unmeasurables 187 The cost–benefit approach 187 Identifying and measuring costs 189 Identifying and measuring benefits in general 192 Comparing costs and benefits 194 Measuring private benefits – travel-cost and other methods 196 The value of time 201 Conclusion 202 Economic-impact Analysis 202 Introduction 202 Counting the cost 203 The multiplier 203 Economic significance studies 206 Summary 208 Appendix 9.1: Multiplier Analysis Spreadsheet 210 10. Performance Evaluation 211 Introduction 211 Evaluation in Context 211 Steps in the Evaluation Process 214 Approaches 215 Best value 215 The benefits approach to leisure 217 Customer service 219 Importance–performance analysis 220 Applications in Leisure and Tourism 221 Community recreation 222 00Leisure - Prelims 6/8/02 11:41 am Page ix Contents ix Arts, cultural venues and events 222 Sports facilities 222 Tourism 229 Goals and Performance Indices 229 Summary 236 11. Policy and Planning for Particular Sectors and Groups 238 Introduction 238 Leisure and Tourism Sectors 238 Sport and physical recreation 238 The arts 241 Outdoor recreation – natural areas 244 Urban outdoor recreation 245 Tourism 246 Groups 248 Women 249 Ethnic groups 250 People with disabilities 251 Children 252 Youth 252 The elderly 253 Finally 254 Summary 254 Bibliography 256 Author Index 277 Subject Index 283 00Leisure - Prelims 6/8/02 11:41 am Page x List of Tables 1.1 Government expenditure on leisure and tourism 2 1.2 The range of government involvement in leisure and tourism 7 3.1 Parties, governments and ideologies 38 3.2 Ideologies summarized 51 4.1 Mainstream economics and the role of the state – summary 63 5.1 Examples of countries with different constitutions 74 5.2 Westminster vs. presidential government: features 75 5.3 Leisure, tourism and levels of government 76 6.1 Levels of decision-making 89 6.2 Information for environmental appraisal 97 6.3 Facility/service inventory content 99 6.4 Mission/goals/objectives – examples 102 6.5 Values/ideologies and goals 104 6.6 Individuals and organizations involved in consultation 108 6.7 Public participation formats 109 6.8 Importance–performance decision-making – hypothetical example 111 7.1 Spatial sources of demand 117 7.2 Leisure facility/service provision standards 118 7.3 Standards: advantages and disadvantages 119 7.4 GDMS age-specific example: squash demand by age-group 124 7.5 Gross demand, selected physical activities, for typical community of 100,000 adult population 125 7.6 Facility capacities 125 7.7 Gross demand/market share (GDMS) approach and tourism 127 7.8 Greater London Council hierarchy of parks 133 7.9 Hierarchies of social facilities 134 7.10 GLC recreation priority areas: scoring system 135 7.11 Grouping of wards on supply/need indices 135 7.12 The recreation opportunity spectrum 137 7.13 Planning matrix in simplified form 138 7.14 Facility/service inventory for matrix analysis 139 7.15 Detailed matrix analysis 140 7.16 Planning approaches related to goals/objectives 147 8.1 Measuring leisure and tourism demand 156 8.2 Car ownership, selected countries, 1996 162 8.3 Moving average (hypothetical data) 175 8.4 Cohort method – prediction for activity X, hypothetical community 178 x 00Leisure - Prelims 6/8/02 11:41 am Page xi List of Tables xi 8.5 Sport participation by age, Great Britain, 1996 179 8.6 Forecasts of outdoor recreation participation, USA 182 9.1 Measurable/non-measurable costs and benefits 187 9.2 Private-sector vs. public-sector project evaluation 189 9.3 Estimating costs of traffic congestion 191 9.4 Benefits from mixed goods/services 194 9.5 Summary cost–benefit analysis (annual flows) 195 9.6 Two projects compared over 10 years 195 9.7 Price vs.