1 Workplace Bullying and Mobbing : Definitions, Terms, and When They Matter David C. Yamada, Maureen Duffy, and Peggy Ann Berry Since the late 1980s, when the terms workplace mobbing and workplace bully- ing began to appear in the research and professional literature, scholars and practitioners in fields as diverse as psychology, organizational behavior, and law have attempted to define these terms or have suggested other labels for naming the underlying behaviors. Three decades later, the concepts of work- place bullying and mobbing are fully entering the mainstream vocabularies of employee relations and interpersonal mistreatment. The process of labeling and defining human interactions can be a tricky and sometimes touchy business, as many researchers and theorists have come to realize. In what is now a multidisciplinary field of study, with multiple disciplinary lexicons simultaneously in use, labeling and defining workplace bullying and mobbing remains a sometimes fraught activity. Nonetheless, what is common to these efforts to label and define these behaviors is the shared interest in understanding the underlying social and neurobiological processes involved; the damaging effects on targets and an increasingly wide range of other stakeholders; and the development of effective means to both prevent workplace bullying and mobbing and offer treatments, interventions, and legal relief to those affected. Naming something is a powerful epistemological act with real-world sig- nificance. Drawing a distinction by naming and defining something brings that something from the background into the foreground, thereby enabling it to be studied and investigated. Keeney (1983) stated that “drawing any dis- tinction necessarily leaves us with an altered, expanded universe for further investigation” (p. 23). It would be a safe bet to say that there are very few pro- fessionals, especially practitioners, working in the area of workplace bullying Duffy_Workplace Bullying and Mobbing in the United States_V1.indb 3 12/09/17 7:16 pm 4 Workplace Bullying and Mobbing in the United States and mobbing who have not heard clients express huge relief upon learning that the abuse they have been experiencing at work has a name and is studied in the professional literature. The naming of their experiences of bullying and mobbing provides validation, opportunities for understanding, and avenues for healing. John Dewey (1910/2007), the American philosopher, psycholo- gist, and educational reformer, also paid attention to the importance of nam- ing. He said, Every one has experienced how learning an appropriate name for what was dim and vague cleared up and crystallized the whole matter. Some meaning seems distinct almost within reach, but is elusive; it refuses to condense into definite form; the attaching of a word somehow (just how, it is almost impossible to say) puts limits around the meaning, draws it out from the void, makes it stand out as an entity on its own account. (p. 173) Thus, we begin these volumes with what may appear to be an obligatory chapter on terms and definitions. However, we do so with aspirations that go beyond checking a box. In addition to providing and explaining basic terms and definitions, we will highlight when, why, and how they matter, while acknowledging that people will have their own opinions as to which ones best capture the underlying behaviors. As we see it, these behaviors are so damaging and destructive to individuals and organizations that we should not get too caught up in debates over who is “right” on the question of pre- ferred terminology. Rather, we embrace and call for a “big tent” approach that focuses on understanding, preventing, and responding to these behaviors on individual, organizational, and public policy levels. Accordingly, this chapter will identify and discuss varying terms and defi- nitions related to our focus on workplace bullying and mobbing. We begin by focusing on a representative sampling of definitions used for our primary terms of workplace bullying and workplace mobbing, followed by a look at other terms that have been invoked to cover the same or similar behaviors. We then discuss the key elements of the definitions, followed by a brief con- sideration of the most common bullying and mobbing behaviors. Finally, we offer an examination of the implications of these terms and definitions for important stakeholder interests. Before proceeding, we wish to acknowledge that no core definition can possibly cover all the relevant dynamics of bul- lying and mobbing at work. In parsing and distinguishing them, we are not finding fault with what is or is not contained in a given definition. In many cases, a factor that one author includes in a basic definition may be covered by another author elsewhere in a commentary. Duffy_Workplace Bullying and Mobbing in the United States_V1.indb 4 12/09/17 7:16 pm Workplace Bullying and Mobbing 5 DEFINING WORKPLACE BULLYING Three representative definitions of workplace bullying are provided here. They include definitions from Andrea Adams, the British journalist who first popularized the term workplace bullying in the 1980s and early 1990s; Gary and Ruth Namie, the cofounders of the American-based Workplace Bullying Institute, who were most responsible for bringing the term workplace bullying to the United States; and leading European researchers Stale Einarsen, Helge Hoel, Dieter Zapf, and Cary Cooper. Andrea Adams The late Andrea Adams used a series of BBC radio documentaries to bring the topic to a more public audience. In 1992, she authored what may have been the first book to use “bullying” at work as its operative term (Adams, 1992). She observed that even though workplace bullying is “like a malignant cancer” and that “the majority of the adult population spends more waking hours at work than anywhere else,” the manifestations of this form of abuse “are widely dismissed” (Adams, 1992, p. 9). In a 1994 speech to the trade union Manufacturing, Science and Finance, she defined bullying this way: Workplace bullying constitutes offensive behaviour through vindictive, cruel, malicious or humiliating attempts to undermine an individual or groups of employees. And these persistently negative attacks on their personal and professional performance are typically unpredictable, irra- tional and often unfair. This abuse of power or position can cause such chronic stress and anxiety that the employees gradually lose belief in themselves, suffering physical ill-health and mental distress as a result. (Ellis, 2011, p. 2) Adams was a journalist, not a researcher or theorist. However, her early explanation of workplace bullying captured many of the elements found in more academic definitions. Furthermore, by emphasizing a public audience rather than an academic one for her work, she helped to lay the groundwork for mainstreaming workplace bullying as an employee relations concern. Gary Namie and Ruth Namie In 1997, Gary and Ruth Namie, both holders of PhDs in psychology, founded the Campaign Against Workplace Bullying, the first major initia- tive designed to import the term workplace bullying into the vocabulary of American employee relations and mental health treatment. This effort would Duffy_Workplace Bullying and Mobbing in the United States_V1.indb 5 12/09/17 7:16 pm 6 Workplace Bullying and Mobbing in the United States evolve into the creation of the Workplace Bullying Institute and the publica- tion of several books (Namie & Namie, 1999, 2009, 2011). The Namies define workplace bullying as the “repeated, health-harming mistreatment of a person by one or more workers that takes the form of verbal abuse; conduct or behaviors that are threatening, intimidating, or humiliat- ing; sabotage that prevents work from getting done; or some combination of the three” (Namie & Namie, 2009, p. 1). They go on to characterize work- place bullying as a form of “psychological violence” that mixes “verbal and strategic assaults to prevent the Target from performing work well,” thus undermining “an employer’s legitimate business interests” (Namie & Namie, 2009, p. 1). They add that bullying includes an aggressor’s “personal agenda of controlling another human being,” typically via “a combination of deliber- ate humiliation and the withholding of resources” required to perform a job (Namie & Namie, 2009, p. 1). Working in conjunction with Zogby Analytics pollsters, the Workplace Bullying Institute has conducted periodic national scientific surveys on work- place bullying using various measures that build off this basic definition. Fur- ther discussion of those surveys may be found in chapter 2, which examines the prevalence of workplace bullying and mobbing behaviors. Stale Einarsen, Helge Hoel, Dieter Zapf, and Cary Cooper Leading European researchers and theorists Stale Einarsen, Helge Hoel, Dieter Zapf, and Cary Cooper have been examining bullying, mobbing, and related behaviors at work going back to the 1990s. While acknowledging the complexities and “many shapes and shades” of this topic (Einarsen, Hoel, Zapf, & Cooper, p. 4), they define workplace bullying this way: “At a basic level it is about the systematic mistreatment of a subordinate, a colleague, or a superior, which, if continued and long-lasting, may cause severe social, psy- chological, and psychosomatic problems in the target” (Einarsen et al., 2011, p. 4). They further expound on this definition: “Bullying at work is about repeated actions and practises that are directed against one or more work- ers; that